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Psychology All Content Flashcards

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1
Q

Introspection

A

What’s going on inside your head (not always accurate)

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2
Q

Behaviorism

A

Scientific study of observable behavior without reference to mental processes

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3
Q

Humanistic Psychology

A

Study of mental processes

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4
Q

Contemporary Psychology

A

Cognitive psychology scientifically explored ways in which information is perceived, processed and remembered

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5
Q

Psychology

A

Science of behavior and mental processes

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6
Q

Behavior

A

Any action that can be observed or recorded

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7
Q

Positive Psychology

A

Explores human flourishing

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8
Q

Evolutionary Psychology

A

How humans are alike because of common biology and evolutionary history

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9
Q

Behavior Genetics

A

Differences related to different genetics and environments

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10
Q

Cross Cultural Psychology

A

How culture shapes behavior (some processes are universal)

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11
Q

Gender Psychology

A

How male vs female compares

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12
Q

Correlation vs Causation

A

The correlation will NEVER prove causation.
Causation - the action of causing something
Correlation - a mutual relationship or connection between two or more things.

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13
Q

Independent Variable

A

A variable whose variation does not depend on that of another

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14
Q

Dependent Variable

A

A variable whose value depends on that of another

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15
Q

Neural & Hormonal Systems

A

Biology, behavior, and mind

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16
Q

Monistic

A

Body

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17
Q

Dualistic

A

Body & Soul

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18
Q

Action Potential

A

Neural impulse that travels down an axon like a wave

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19
Q

Agonist

A

Increases a neurotransmitters action

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20
Q

Antagonist

A

Inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitters actions

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21
Q

Sympathetic

A

Like the gas pedal. Controls manual functions

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22
Q

Parasympathetic

A

Like the brake. Controls automatic functions

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23
Q

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A

A test used to find problems related to electrical activity of the brain.
An EEG tracks and records brain wave patterns.

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24
Q

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

A

A non-invasive medical test that measures the magnetic fields produced by your brain’s electrical currents. It is performed to map brain function and to identify the exact location of the source of epileptic seizures

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25
Q

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

A

A type of imaging test. It uses a radioactive substance called a tracer to look for disease in the body. It shows how organs and tissues are working.

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26
Q

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

A

A medical imaging technique used in radiology to form pictures of the anatomy and the physiological processes of the body.

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27
Q

Functional MRI (fMRI)

A

Measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow. This technique relies on the fact that cerebral blood flow and neuronal activation are coupled.

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28
Q

Medulla

A

Located at the base of the brain stem. Controls heartbeat and breathing

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29
Q

Pons

A

Sits above the medulla. Helps coordinate movement

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30
Q

Thalamus

A

The area at the top of the brain stem. Directs sensory messages to the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. Influences multi-tasking

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31
Q

Reticular Formation

A

A nerve network running through the brain stem and thalamus. Plays an important role in controlling arousal

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32
Q

The Cerebellum

A

Aids in judgement of time, sound, texture, discrimination and emotional control. Coordinates voluntary movement and life-sustaining functions. Helps process and store information outside of awareness

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33
Q

The Limbic System

A

Sits between the brain’s older parts and its cerebral hemispheres. Neural centers include the hippocampus, amygdala and hypothalamus. Is linked to emotions, memory and drives. Controls the nearby pituitary gland

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34
Q

Amygdala

A

2 lima-bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system. Linked to emotion

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35
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Neural structure lying below the thalamus. Directs several maintenance activities. Helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward

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36
Q

Hippocampus

A

Procceses conscious, explicit memories. Decreases in size and function with age

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37
Q

Motor Cortex

A

Located at the rear of the frontal lobes. Body areas requiring precise control (fingers, mouth) occupied the largest part of the cortical space

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38
Q

Somatosensory Cortex

A

Processes information from skin senses and body parts

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39
Q

Visual Cortex

A

Located at the rear of the brain, receives input from your eyes

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40
Q

Auditory Cortex

A

Located above the ears. Receives information from the ears

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41
Q

Corpus Callosum

A

Large band of neural fibers that connects the two brain hemispheres, allowing communication between the two hemispheres

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42
Q

Left Hemisphere

A

Good at making quick decisions and exact interpretations of language

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43
Q

Right Hemisphere

A

Good for making inferences, modulating speech and facilitating self-awareness

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44
Q

Genes

A

Biochemical units of heredity that make up chromosomes, the thread like coils of DNA. When genes are expressed, they provide the code for creating proteins, which form the body’s building blocks.

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45
Q

Human Genome

A

The shared genetic profile profile that sets humans apart from other species. The human genome includes 46 chromosomes in 23 matched sets; each chromosome has the same gene locations

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46
Q

Behavior Genetics

A

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

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47
Q

Heredity

A

The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

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48
Q

Environment

A

Every non genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

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49
Q

Chromosomes

A

Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

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50
Q

DNA

A

Complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

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51
Q

Genome

A

The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes

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52
Q

Extraversion

A

Sociability

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53
Q

Neuroticism

A

Emotional instability

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54
Q

Temperament

A

A person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity; apparent from the first weeks of life and generally persists into adulthood

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55
Q

Interaction

A

The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

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56
Q

Molecular Genetics

A

The study of the molecular structure and function of genes

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57
Q

Epigenetics

A

The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

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58
Q

Evolutionary Psychology

A

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind using principles of natural selection

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59
Q

Natural Selection

A

Inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other train variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

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60
Q

Culture

A

Patterns of ideas, attitudes, values, lifestyle habits, and traditions shared by a group of people and passed on to future generations

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61
Q

Culture Shock

A

Feeling lost about which behaviors are appropriate

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62
Q

Individualist Culture

A

Value independence. Promote personal ideals, strengths, and goals, pursued in competition with others, leading to individual achievement and finding a unique identity

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63
Q

Collectivist Culture

A

Value interdependence. Promote group and societal goals and duties, and blending in with group identity, with achievement attributed to mutual support

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64
Q

X Chromosome

A

Sex chromosome found in both men and women

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65
Q

Y Chromosome

A

Sex chromosome found in males only

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66
Q

Testosterone

A

An androgen that stimulates growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and development of male sex characteristics during puberty

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67
Q

Estrogens

A

Sex hormones that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females than by males

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68
Q

Intersex

A

A condition present at birth due to unusual combinations of male and female chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy; possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes

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69
Q

Spermarche

A

First ejaculation

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70
Q

Menarche

A

First menstrual period

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71
Q

Gender Role

A

Expected behaviors for males or for females. Shift over time and place

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72
Q

Gender Identity

A

Personal sense of being male or female

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73
Q

Social Learning Theory

A

Social behavior is learned by observing and imitating others gender linked behavior and by being rewarded or punished

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74
Q

Gender Typing

A

More than imitation is involved; children gravitate toward what feels right

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75
Q

Androgyny

A

Displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics

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76
Q

Transgender

A

Umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex

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77
Q

Sensorimotor Stage

A

0-2 years old. Tools for thinking and reasoning change with development. Adaptation, assimilation, accomidation

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78
Q

Object Permanence

A

Awareness that things continue to exist even when not percieved

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79
Q

Preoperational Stage

A

2-7 years old. Children learn to use language but cannot yet perform the mental operations of concrete logic. Conservation, egocentrism/curse of knowledge

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80
Q

Theory of Mind

A

The ability to read the mental state of others. Between 3 1/2 and 4 1/2, children worldwide use theory of mind to realize others may hold false beliefs. Age 4-5, children anticipate false beliefs of friends

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81
Q

Concrete Operational

A

7-11 years old. Gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events. Begins to understand changes in form before changes in quantity. Begin to understand simple math and conservation

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82
Q

Formal Operational

A

12+ years. No longer limited to concrete reasoning based on actual experience. Able to think abstractly

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83
Q

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

A

Children with ASD have impaired theory of mind, social deficiencies, and repetitive behaviors. Reading faces and social signals is challenging for people with ASD. The underlying cause is attributed to poor communication among brain regions that facilitate theory of mind skills and genetic influences. Boys to girls: 4:1 ratio

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84
Q

Infant Attachment

A

Emotional tie with another person. At 8 months children display stranger anxiety when separated from their caregivers. They form attachments for more than just gratifying biological needs, but also because they are comfortable, familiar, and responsive.

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85
Q

Critical Period

A

Optimal period early in life when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development

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86
Q

Imprinting

A

Process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life

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87
Q

Strange Situation

A

An experiment/procedure to observe to observe attachment relationships between a caregiver and child (9-18 months old).
Attachment Style 1) Secure
Attachment Style 2) Insecure (ambivalent and avoidance)

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88
Q

Self-Concept

A

An understanding and evaluation of who we are (emerges gradually)

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89
Q

Authoritarian Parents

A

Are coercive; they impose rules and expect obedience

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90
Q

Permissive Parents

A

Are unrestraining; they make few demands, set few limits, and use little punishment

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91
Q

Negligent Parents

A

Are uninvolved; they are neither demanding nor responsive. These careless and inattentive parents do not seek a close relationship with their children

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92
Q

Authoritative Parents

A

Are confrontive; they are demanding and responsive. They exert control by setting rules but, especially with older children, encourage open discussion and allow exceptions

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93
Q

Adolescence

A

Transition from puberty to social independence

94
Q

Early-Maturing Boys

A

More popular, self-assured, and independent; at greater risk for alcohol use, delinquency, and premature sexual activity

95
Q

Early-Maturing Girls

A

Mismatch between physical and emotional maturity may encourage relationships with older teens; teasing or sexual harassment may occur

96
Q

Teens

A

Frontal lobe development and synaptic pruning may lead to irrational and risky behaviors

97
Q

Developing Reasoning Power (Piaget)

A

Develop new abstract thinking tools (formal operations). Reason logically and develop moral judgement

98
Q

Developing Moral Reasoning

A

Use moral reasoning that develops in a universal sequence to guide moral actions

99
Q

Moral Intuition (Haidt)

A

Much of morality is rooted in moral intuitions that are made quickly and automatically. Moral cognition is often automatic but can be overridden

100
Q

Moral Action

A

Moral action feeds moral attitudes. The ability to delay gratifications is linked to more positive outcomes in adulthood

101
Q

Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Thinking

A 
Preconventional Morality (Before age 9) Self-interest; obey rules
Conventional Morality (Early Adolescence) Uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order
Post-conventional Morality (Adolescence and Beyond) Actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principals
102
Q

Adolescence Struggle

A

Identity vs role confusion; continues into adulthood

103
Q

Social Identity

A

The “we” aspect of self-concept that comes from group members

104
Q

Social Development

A

Healthy identity formation is followed by a capacity to build close relationships
Self-esteem typically declines during the early to mid-teen years, and, for girls, depression scores often increase. Self-image rebounds during the late teens and twenties, and gender self-esteem differences become small

105
Q

Infancy (to 1 yr)

A

Trust vs Mistrust

If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust

106
Q

Toddlerhood (1-3 yrs old)

A

Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt

Toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities

107
Q

Preschool (3-6 yrs old)

A

Initiative vs Guilt

Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent

108
Q

Elementary School (6-Puberty)

A

Competence vs Inferiority

Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior

109
Q

Adolescence (Teen-20’s)

A

Identity vs Role Confusion
Teens work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are

110
Q

Young Adulthood (20’s-40’s)

A

Intimacy vs Isolation
Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated

111
Q

Middle Adulthood (40’s-60’s)

A

Generativity vs Stagnation
Middle-aged people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose

112
Q

Late Adulthood (late 60’s and up)

A

Integrity vs Despair

Reflecting on their lives, older adults may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure

113
Q

Longitudinal Study

A

A research design that involves repeated observations of the same variables over short or long periods of time. It is often a type of observational study, although they can also be structured as longitudinal randomized experiments

114
Q

Clinical Depression

A

A mental health disorder characterized by persistently depressed mood or loss of interest in activities, causing significant impairment in daily life

115
Q

Anxiety Disorder

A

A mental health disorder characterized by feelings of worry, anxiety, or fear that are strong enough to interfere with one’s daily activities

116
Q

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

A

A disorder in which a person has difficulty recovering after experiencing or witnessing a terrifying event

117
Q

Schizophrenia

A

A disorder that affects a person’s ability to think, feel, and behave clearly

118
Q

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

A

A chronic condition including attention difficulty, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness

119
Q

Alzheimers

A

A progressive disease that destroys memory and other important mental functions

120
Q

Ivan Pavlov

A

A Russian physiologist known primarily for his work in classical conditioning. From his childhood days Pavlov demonstrated intellectual curiosity along with an unusual energy which he referred to as “the instinct for research”

121
Q

Jonathon Haidt

A

An American social psychologist, Professor of Ethical Leadership at New York University’s Stern School of Business, and author. His main areas of study are the psychology of morality and the moral emotions

122
Q

Erik Erikson

A

A German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychological development of human beings. He may be most famous for coining the phrase identity crisis. His son, Kai T. Erikson, is a noted American sociologist

123
Q

Lawrence Kohlberg

A

An American psychologist best known for his theory of stages of moral development. He served as a professor in the Psychology Department at the University of Chicago and at the Graduate School of Education at Harvard University.

124
Q

Jean Piaget

A

A Swiss psychologist known for his work on child development. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called “genetic epistemology”. Piaget placed great importance on the education of children.

125
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

Type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

126
Q

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A

A stimulus that unconditionally -naturally and automatically- triggers an unconditioned response (UR)

127
Q

Conditioned Response (CR)

A

A learned response to a previously neutral, but now conditioned stimulus (CS)

128
Q

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A

An originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

129
Q

Unconditioned Response (UR)

A

An unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth)

130
Q

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A

A stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR)

131
Q

Acquisition

A

Initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response
In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

132
Q

High-order Conditioning

A

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus
An animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone.
Also called second-order conditioning

133
Q

Extinction

A

Diminishing of a conditioned response

Occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS)

134
Q

Spontaneous Recovery

A

Reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

135
Q

Generalization

A

Tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

136
Q

Discrimination

A

Learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (which predicts the US) and other irrelevant stimuli

137
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence

138
Q

Law of Effect

A

A principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

139
Q

Operant Chamber

A

A chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing

140
Q

B.F. Skinner

A

Burrhus Frederic Skinner, commonly known as B. F. Skinner, was an American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher

141
Q

Reinforcement

A

Any event that strengthens a preceding response

142
Q

Shaping

A

Reinforcers gradually guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

143
Q

Positive Reinforcement

A

Increases behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers

Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

144
Q

Negative Reinforcement

A

Increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli

Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response

145
Q

Primary

A

Unlearned, innately reinforcing stimuli

146
Q

Conditioned (Secondary)

A

Gains power through association with primary reinforcer

147
Q

Immediate

A

Occurs immediately after a behavior

148
Q

Delayed

A

Involves time delay between desired response and delivery of reward

149
Q

Reinforcement Schedule

A

A pattern defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

150
Q

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

A

Reinforces the desired response every time it occurs

151
Q

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

A

Reinforces a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

152
Q

Punishment

A

administers an undesirable consequence or withdraws something desirable in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior (a child’s disobedience)

153
Q

Positive Punishment

A

Presenting a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future

154
Q

Negative Punishment

A

Removing a desired stimulus after a particular undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future

155
Q

Observational Learning

A

Higher animals learn without direct experience by watching and imitating others

156
Q

Bandura

A

Pioneer researcher of observational learning
Modeling: The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Bobo doll experiment focused on vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment

157
Q

Mirror Neurons

A

Include frontal lobe neurons, which some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another person doing so
(The brain mirroring another’s action could result in empathy and imitation)

158
Q

Prosocial Effects

A

Behavior modeling enhances learning of communication, sales, and customer service skills in new employees.
Modeling nonviolent behavior prompts similar behavior in others.
In a study conducted across seven countries, viewing prosocial media increased later helping behavior.
Socially responsive toddlers tend to have a strong internalized conscience as preschoolers

159
Q

Antisocial Effects

A

Abusive parents may have aggressive children.
Watching TV and videos may teach children some unwanted lessons:
Bullying is an effective tool for controlling others.
Free and easy sex has few later consequences.
Men should be tough; women should be gentle.

160
Q

Memory

A

Persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

161
Q

Recall

A

Retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time

162
Q

Recognition

A

Identifying items previously learned

163
Q

Relearning

A

Learning something more quickly when you encounter it a second or later time

164
Q

Information-Processing Model

A

Compares human memory to computer operations

Involves three processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval

165
Q

Connectionism Information-Processing Model

A

Focuses on multitrack, parallel processing

Views memories as products of interconnected neural networks

166
Q

3 Processing Stages in the Atkinson Shiffrin Model

A

We record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory.
We process information into short-term memory, where we encode it through rehearsal.
Information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval

167
Q

Working Memory

A

To stress the active processing occurring in the second memory stage

168
Q

Automatic Processing

A

To address the processing of information outside of conscious awareness

169
Q

Explicit Memories

A

(declarative memories) of conscious facts and experiences encoded through conscious, effortful processing

170
Q

Implicit Memories

A

(nondeclarative memories) that form through automatic processes and bypass the conscious encoding track

171
Q

Sensory Memory

A

First stage in forming explicit memories

Immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

172
Q

Iconic Memory

A

Picture-Image memory

173
Q

Echoic Memory

A

Sound memory

174
Q

Short-term Memory

A

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly (such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing) before the information is stored or forgotten

175
Q

Chunking

A

Organization of items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

176
Q

Mnemonics

A

Memory aids, especially techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

177
Q

Hierarchies

A

Organization of items into a few broad categories that are divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts

178
Q

Spacing Effect

A

Encoding is more effective when it is spread over time

179
Q

Massed Practice

A

Produces speedy short-term learning and feelings of confidence

180
Q

Distributed Practice

A

Produces better long-term recall

181
Q

Testing Effect

A

Retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced effect

182
Q

Shallow Processing

A

Encodes information on a very basic level (a word’s letters) or a more intermediate level (a word’s sound)

183
Q

Deep Processing

A

Encodes information semantically based on word meaning

184
Q

Memory Consolidation

A

Neural storage of long-term memories

185
Q

Semantic Memory

A

Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems

186
Q

Episodic Memory

A

Explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems

187
Q

Implicit Memory System

A

The cerebellum plays an important role in forming and storing memories created by classical conditioning.
Memories of physical skills are also implicit memories.
The basal ganglia help form memories for these skills

188
Q

Infantile Amnesia

A

Conscious memory of the first three years of life is blank.

Command of language and a well-developed hippocampus are needed to form memories

189
Q

Flashbulb Memories

A

Occur via emotion-triggered hormonal changes and rehearsal

190
Q

Long-term Potentiation

A

Increase in a synapse’s firing potential
After LTP, the brain will not erase memories
Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

191
Q

Kandel and Schwartz

A

Pinpointed changes in sea slugs’ neural connections

With learning, more serotonin is released and cell efficiency increases—that is, the number of synapses increases.

192
Q

Retrieval Cues

A

Priming
Context-dependent memory
State-dependent memory
Serial position effect

193
Q

Memory Retrieval

A

Memories are held in storage by a web of associations.
Retrieval cues serve as anchor points for pathways to memories suspended in this web.
The best retrieval cues come from associations formed at the time a memory is encoded

194
Q

Priming

A

Activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

195
Q

Context-dependent Memory

A

Recall of specific information is improved when the contexts present at encoding and at retrieval are the same

196
Q

Encoding Specificity Principle

A

Cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping recall

197
Q

State-dependent Memory

A

The tendency to recall events consistent with current good or bad mood (mood-congruent memory)

198
Q

Mood-congruent Memory

A

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

199
Q

Serial Position Effect

A

The tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list

200
Q

Encoding Failure

A

Age: Encoding lag is linked to age-related memory decline.
Attention: Failure to notice or encode contributes to memory failure

201
Q

Storage Decay

A

Course of forgetting is initially rapid, but then levels off with time.
Physical changes in the brain occur as memories form (memory trace)

202
Q

Interference

A

Proactive: Older memories make it more difficult to remember new information.
Retroactive: New learning disrupts memory for older information

203
Q

Motivated Forgetting

A

Freud: Repressed memories protect a person’s self-concept and minimize anxiety.
Today: Attempts to forget are more likely when information is neutral, not emotional

204
Q

Misinformation Effect

A

A memory is corrupted by misleading information

205
Q

Imagination Effect

A

Repeatedly imagining fake actions and events can create false memories

206
Q

Source Amnesia (Source Misattribution)

A

Faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagine

207
Q

Déjà Vu

A

The sense that “I’ve experienced this before”

Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

208
Q

Repressed or Constructed Memories of Abuse

A

The debate between memory researchers and some well-meaning therapists focuses on whether most memories of early childhood abuse are repressed and can be recovered during therapy using “memory work” techniques using leading questions or hypnosis

209
Q

Improving Memory

A 
Rehearse repeatedly.
Make the material meaningful.
Activate retrieval cues.
Use mnemonic devices.
Minimize interference.
Sleep more.
Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to find out what you do not yet know
210
Q

Cognition

A

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

211
Q

Concept

A

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, and people

212
Q

Prototype

A

A mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories

213
Q

Algorithm

A

A methodical, logical rule, or procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem

214
Q

Heuristic

A

Is not a strategy-based solution, but rather a sudden flash of inspiration that solves a problem

215
Q

Insight

A

Is not a strategy-based solution, but rather a sudden flash of inspiration that solves a problem

216
Q

Confirmation Bias

A

Predisposes us to verify rather than challenge our hypotheses

217
Q

Fixation

A

Fixation, such as mental set, may prevent us from taking the fresh perspective that would lead to a solution

218
Q

Intuition

A

An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

219
Q

Representativeness Heuristic

A

An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

220
Q

Availability Heuristic

A

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

221
Q

Overconfidence

A

The tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

222
Q

Belief Perseverance

A

Occurs when we cling to beliefs and ignore evidence that proves these beliefs are wrong

223
Q

Framing

A

Sways decisions and judgments by influencing the way an issue is posed. It can also influence beneficial decisions

224
Q

Divergent Thinking

A

Expands the number of possible problem solutions

Creative thinking that diverges in different directions

225
Q

Convergent Thinking

A

Narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

226
Q

Motivation

A

Need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

227
Q

Instinct Theory

A

(Evolutionary Perspective): Genetically predisposed behaviors

228
Q

Drive-reduction Theory

A

Responses to inner pushes

229
Q

Arousal Theory

A

Right levels of stimulation

230
Q

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

A

Priority of some needs over others

231
Q

Instinct

A

Fixed, unlearned pattern throughout species

Genes predispose some species-typical behavior

Psychology (4 decks)

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