Psychology All Content Flashcards
Introspection
What’s going on inside your head (not always accurate)
Behaviorism
Scientific study of observable behavior without reference to mental processes
Humanistic Psychology
Study of mental processes
Contemporary Psychology
Cognitive psychology scientifically explored ways in which information is perceived, processed and remembered
Psychology
Science of behavior and mental processes
Behavior
Any action that can be observed or recorded
Positive Psychology
Explores human flourishing
Evolutionary Psychology
How humans are alike because of common biology and evolutionary history
Behavior Genetics
Differences related to different genetics and environments
Cross Cultural Psychology
How culture shapes behavior (some processes are universal)
Gender Psychology
How male vs female compares
Correlation vs Causation
The correlation will NEVER prove causation.
Causation - the action of causing something
Correlation - a mutual relationship or connection between two or more things.
Independent Variable
A variable whose variation does not depend on that of another
Dependent Variable
A variable whose value depends on that of another
Neural & Hormonal Systems
Biology, behavior, and mind
Monistic
Body
Dualistic
Body & Soul
Action Potential
Neural impulse that travels down an axon like a wave
Agonist
Increases a neurotransmitters action
Antagonist
Inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitters actions
Sympathetic
Like the gas pedal. Controls manual functions
Parasympathetic
Like the brake. Controls automatic functions
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
A test used to find problems related to electrical activity of the brain.
An EEG tracks and records brain wave patterns.
Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
A non-invasive medical test that measures the magnetic fields produced by your brain’s electrical currents. It is performed to map brain function and to identify the exact location of the source of epileptic seizures
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
A type of imaging test. It uses a radioactive substance called a tracer to look for disease in the body. It shows how organs and tissues are working.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
A medical imaging technique used in radiology to form pictures of the anatomy and the physiological processes of the body.
Functional MRI (fMRI)
Measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow. This technique relies on the fact that cerebral blood flow and neuronal activation are coupled.
Medulla
Located at the base of the brain stem. Controls heartbeat and breathing
Pons
Sits above the medulla. Helps coordinate movement
Thalamus
The area at the top of the brain stem. Directs sensory messages to the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. Influences multi-tasking
Reticular Formation
A nerve network running through the brain stem and thalamus. Plays an important role in controlling arousal
The Cerebellum
Aids in judgement of time, sound, texture, discrimination and emotional control. Coordinates voluntary movement and life-sustaining functions. Helps process and store information outside of awareness
The Limbic System
Sits between the brain’s older parts and its cerebral hemispheres. Neural centers include the hippocampus, amygdala and hypothalamus. Is linked to emotions, memory and drives. Controls the nearby pituitary gland
Amygdala
2 lima-bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system. Linked to emotion
Hypothalamus
Neural structure lying below the thalamus. Directs several maintenance activities. Helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward
Hippocampus
Procceses conscious, explicit memories. Decreases in size and function with age
Motor Cortex
Located at the rear of the frontal lobes. Body areas requiring precise control (fingers, mouth) occupied the largest part of the cortical space
Somatosensory Cortex
Processes information from skin senses and body parts
Visual Cortex
Located at the rear of the brain, receives input from your eyes
Auditory Cortex
Located above the ears. Receives information from the ears
Corpus Callosum
Large band of neural fibers that connects the two brain hemispheres, allowing communication between the two hemispheres
Left Hemisphere
Good at making quick decisions and exact interpretations of language
Right Hemisphere
Good for making inferences, modulating speech and facilitating self-awareness
Genes
Biochemical units of heredity that make up chromosomes, the thread like coils of DNA. When genes are expressed, they provide the code for creating proteins, which form the body’s building blocks.
Human Genome
The shared genetic profile profile that sets humans apart from other species. The human genome includes 46 chromosomes in 23 matched sets; each chromosome has the same gene locations
Behavior Genetics
The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
Heredity
The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring
Environment
Every non genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
Chromosomes
Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
DNA
Complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
Genome
The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes
Extraversion
Sociability
Neuroticism
Emotional instability
Temperament
A person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity; apparent from the first weeks of life and generally persists into adulthood
Interaction
The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)
Molecular Genetics
The study of the molecular structure and function of genes
Epigenetics
The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change
Evolutionary Psychology
The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind using principles of natural selection
Natural Selection
Inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other train variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
Culture
Patterns of ideas, attitudes, values, lifestyle habits, and traditions shared by a group of people and passed on to future generations
Culture Shock
Feeling lost about which behaviors are appropriate
Individualist Culture
Value independence. Promote personal ideals, strengths, and goals, pursued in competition with others, leading to individual achievement and finding a unique identity
Collectivist Culture
Value interdependence. Promote group and societal goals and duties, and blending in with group identity, with achievement attributed to mutual support
X Chromosome
Sex chromosome found in both men and women
Y Chromosome
Sex chromosome found in males only
Testosterone
An androgen that stimulates growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and development of male sex characteristics during puberty
Estrogens
Sex hormones that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females than by males
Intersex
A condition present at birth due to unusual combinations of male and female chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy; possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes
Spermarche
First ejaculation
Menarche
First menstrual period
Gender Role
Expected behaviors for males or for females. Shift over time and place
Gender Identity
Personal sense of being male or female
Social Learning Theory
Social behavior is learned by observing and imitating others gender linked behavior and by being rewarded or punished
Gender Typing
More than imitation is involved; children gravitate toward what feels right
Androgyny
Displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics
Transgender
Umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex
Sensorimotor Stage
0-2 years old. Tools for thinking and reasoning change with development. Adaptation, assimilation, accomidation
Object Permanence
Awareness that things continue to exist even when not percieved
Preoperational Stage
2-7 years old. Children learn to use language but cannot yet perform the mental operations of concrete logic. Conservation, egocentrism/curse of knowledge
Theory of Mind
The ability to read the mental state of others. Between 3 1/2 and 4 1/2, children worldwide use theory of mind to realize others may hold false beliefs. Age 4-5, children anticipate false beliefs of friends
Concrete Operational
7-11 years old. Gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events. Begins to understand changes in form before changes in quantity. Begin to understand simple math and conservation
Formal Operational
12+ years. No longer limited to concrete reasoning based on actual experience. Able to think abstractly
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
Children with ASD have impaired theory of mind, social deficiencies, and repetitive behaviors. Reading faces and social signals is challenging for people with ASD. The underlying cause is attributed to poor communication among brain regions that facilitate theory of mind skills and genetic influences. Boys to girls: 4:1 ratio
Infant Attachment
Emotional tie with another person. At 8 months children display stranger anxiety when separated from their caregivers. They form attachments for more than just gratifying biological needs, but also because they are comfortable, familiar, and responsive.
Critical Period
Optimal period early in life when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development
Imprinting
Process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life
Strange Situation
An experiment/procedure to observe to observe attachment relationships between a caregiver and child (9-18 months old).
Attachment Style 1) Secure
Attachment Style 2) Insecure (ambivalent and avoidance)
Self-Concept
An understanding and evaluation of who we are (emerges gradually)
Authoritarian Parents
Are coercive; they impose rules and expect obedience
Permissive Parents
Are unrestraining; they make few demands, set few limits, and use little punishment
Negligent Parents
Are uninvolved; they are neither demanding nor responsive. These careless and inattentive parents do not seek a close relationship with their children
Authoritative Parents
Are confrontive; they are demanding and responsive. They exert control by setting rules but, especially with older children, encourage open discussion and allow exceptions
Adolescence
Transition from puberty to social independence
Early-Maturing Boys
More popular, self-assured, and independent; at greater risk for alcohol use, delinquency, and premature sexual activity
Early-Maturing Girls
Mismatch between physical and emotional maturity may encourage relationships with older teens; teasing or sexual harassment may occur
Teens
Frontal lobe development and synaptic pruning may lead to irrational and risky behaviors
Developing Reasoning Power (Piaget)
Develop new abstract thinking tools (formal operations). Reason logically and develop moral judgement
Developing Moral Reasoning
Use moral reasoning that develops in a universal sequence to guide moral actions
Moral Intuition (Haidt)
Much of morality is rooted in moral intuitions that are made quickly and automatically. Moral cognition is often automatic but can be overridden
Moral Action
Moral action feeds moral attitudes. The ability to delay gratifications is linked to more positive outcomes in adulthood
Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Thinking
Preconventional Morality (Before age 9) Self-interest; obey rules Conventional Morality (Early Adolescence) Uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order Post-conventional Morality (Adolescence and Beyond) Actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principals
Adolescence Struggle
Identity vs role confusion; continues into adulthood
Social Identity
The “we” aspect of self-concept that comes from group members
Social Development
Healthy identity formation is followed by a capacity to build close relationships
Self-esteem typically declines during the early to mid-teen years, and, for girls, depression scores often increase. Self-image rebounds during the late teens and twenties, and gender self-esteem differences become small
Infancy (to 1 yr)
Trust vs Mistrust
If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust
Toddlerhood (1-3 yrs old)
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
Toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities
Preschool (3-6 yrs old)
Initiative vs Guilt
Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent
Elementary School (6-Puberty)
Competence vs Inferiority
Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior
Adolescence (Teen-20’s)
Identity vs Role Confusion
Teens work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are
Young Adulthood (20’s-40’s)
Intimacy vs Isolation
Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated
Middle Adulthood (40’s-60’s)
Generativity vs Stagnation
Middle-aged people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose
Late Adulthood (late 60’s and up)
Integrity vs Despair
Reflecting on their lives, older adults may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure
Longitudinal Study
A research design that involves repeated observations of the same variables over short or long periods of time. It is often a type of observational study, although they can also be structured as longitudinal randomized experiments
Clinical Depression
A mental health disorder characterized by persistently depressed mood or loss of interest in activities, causing significant impairment in daily life
Anxiety Disorder
A mental health disorder characterized by feelings of worry, anxiety, or fear that are strong enough to interfere with one’s daily activities
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
A disorder in which a person has difficulty recovering after experiencing or witnessing a terrifying event
Schizophrenia
A disorder that affects a person’s ability to think, feel, and behave clearly
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
A chronic condition including attention difficulty, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness
Alzheimers
A progressive disease that destroys memory and other important mental functions
Ivan Pavlov
A Russian physiologist known primarily for his work in classical conditioning. From his childhood days Pavlov demonstrated intellectual curiosity along with an unusual energy which he referred to as “the instinct for research”
Jonathon Haidt
An American social psychologist, Professor of Ethical Leadership at New York University’s Stern School of Business, and author. His main areas of study are the psychology of morality and the moral emotions
Erik Erikson
A German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychological development of human beings. He may be most famous for coining the phrase identity crisis. His son, Kai T. Erikson, is a noted American sociologist
Lawrence Kohlberg
An American psychologist best known for his theory of stages of moral development. He served as a professor in the Psychology Department at the University of Chicago and at the Graduate School of Education at Harvard University.
Jean Piaget
A Swiss psychologist known for his work on child development. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called “genetic epistemology”. Piaget placed great importance on the education of children.
Classical Conditioning
Type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
A stimulus that unconditionally -naturally and automatically- triggers an unconditioned response (UR)
Conditioned Response (CR)
A learned response to a previously neutral, but now conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
An originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)
Unconditioned Response (UR)
An unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth)
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
A stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR)
Acquisition
Initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response
In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
High-order Conditioning
A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus
An animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone.
Also called second-order conditioning
Extinction
Diminishing of a conditioned response
Occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS)
Spontaneous Recovery
Reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
Generalization
Tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
Discrimination
Learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (which predicts the US) and other irrelevant stimuli
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence
Law of Effect
A principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
Operant Chamber
A chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing
B.F. Skinner
Burrhus Frederic Skinner, commonly known as B. F. Skinner, was an American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher
Reinforcement
Any event that strengthens a preceding response
Shaping
Reinforcers gradually guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
Positive Reinforcement
Increases behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers
Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
Negative Reinforcement
Increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli
Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response
Primary
Unlearned, innately reinforcing stimuli
Conditioned (Secondary)
Gains power through association with primary reinforcer
Immediate
Occurs immediately after a behavior
Delayed
Involves time delay between desired response and delivery of reward
Reinforcement Schedule
A pattern defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
Continuous Reinforcement Schedule
Reinforces the desired response every time it occurs
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement
Reinforces a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
Punishment
administers an undesirable consequence or withdraws something desirable in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior (a child’s disobedience)
Positive Punishment
Presenting a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future
Negative Punishment
Removing a desired stimulus after a particular undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future
Observational Learning
Higher animals learn without direct experience by watching and imitating others
Bandura
Pioneer researcher of observational learning
Modeling: The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Bobo doll experiment focused on vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment
Mirror Neurons
Include frontal lobe neurons, which some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another person doing so
(The brain mirroring another’s action could result in empathy and imitation)
Prosocial Effects
Behavior modeling enhances learning of communication, sales, and customer service skills in new employees.
Modeling nonviolent behavior prompts similar behavior in others.
In a study conducted across seven countries, viewing prosocial media increased later helping behavior.
Socially responsive toddlers tend to have a strong internalized conscience as preschoolers
Antisocial Effects
Abusive parents may have aggressive children.
Watching TV and videos may teach children some unwanted lessons:
Bullying is an effective tool for controlling others.
Free and easy sex has few later consequences.
Men should be tough; women should be gentle.
Memory
Persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
Recall
Retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time
Recognition
Identifying items previously learned
Relearning
Learning something more quickly when you encounter it a second or later time
Information-Processing Model
Compares human memory to computer operations
Involves three processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval
Connectionism Information-Processing Model
Focuses on multitrack, parallel processing
Views memories as products of interconnected neural networks
3 Processing Stages in the Atkinson Shiffrin Model
We record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory.
We process information into short-term memory, where we encode it through rehearsal.
Information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval
Working Memory
To stress the active processing occurring in the second memory stage
Automatic Processing
To address the processing of information outside of conscious awareness
Explicit Memories
(declarative memories) of conscious facts and experiences encoded through conscious, effortful processing
Implicit Memories
(nondeclarative memories) that form through automatic processes and bypass the conscious encoding track
Sensory Memory
First stage in forming explicit memories
Immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
Iconic Memory
Picture-Image memory
Echoic Memory
Sound memory
Short-term Memory
Activated memory that holds a few items briefly (such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing) before the information is stored or forgotten
Chunking
Organization of items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
Mnemonics
Memory aids, especially techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Hierarchies
Organization of items into a few broad categories that are divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts
Spacing Effect
Encoding is more effective when it is spread over time
Massed Practice
Produces speedy short-term learning and feelings of confidence
Distributed Practice
Produces better long-term recall
Testing Effect
Retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced effect
Shallow Processing
Encodes information on a very basic level (a word’s letters) or a more intermediate level (a word’s sound)
Deep Processing
Encodes information semantically based on word meaning
Memory Consolidation
Neural storage of long-term memories
Semantic Memory
Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems
Episodic Memory
Explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems
Implicit Memory System
The cerebellum plays an important role in forming and storing memories created by classical conditioning.
Memories of physical skills are also implicit memories.
The basal ganglia help form memories for these skills
Infantile Amnesia
Conscious memory of the first three years of life is blank.
Command of language and a well-developed hippocampus are needed to form memories
Flashbulb Memories
Occur via emotion-triggered hormonal changes and rehearsal
Long-term Potentiation
Increase in a synapse’s firing potential
After LTP, the brain will not erase memories
Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
Kandel and Schwartz
Pinpointed changes in sea slugs’ neural connections
With learning, more serotonin is released and cell efficiency increases—that is, the number of synapses increases.
Retrieval Cues
Priming
Context-dependent memory
State-dependent memory
Serial position effect
Memory Retrieval
Memories are held in storage by a web of associations.
Retrieval cues serve as anchor points for pathways to memories suspended in this web.
The best retrieval cues come from associations formed at the time a memory is encoded
Priming
Activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
Context-dependent Memory
Recall of specific information is improved when the contexts present at encoding and at retrieval are the same
Encoding Specificity Principle
Cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping recall
State-dependent Memory
The tendency to recall events consistent with current good or bad mood (mood-congruent memory)
Mood-congruent Memory
The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood
Serial Position Effect
The tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list
Encoding Failure
Age: Encoding lag is linked to age-related memory decline.
Attention: Failure to notice or encode contributes to memory failure
Storage Decay
Course of forgetting is initially rapid, but then levels off with time.
Physical changes in the brain occur as memories form (memory trace)
Interference
Proactive: Older memories make it more difficult to remember new information.
Retroactive: New learning disrupts memory for older information
Motivated Forgetting
Freud: Repressed memories protect a person’s self-concept and minimize anxiety.
Today: Attempts to forget are more likely when information is neutral, not emotional
Misinformation Effect
A memory is corrupted by misleading information
Imagination Effect
Repeatedly imagining fake actions and events can create false memories
Source Amnesia (Source Misattribution)
Faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagine
Déjà Vu
The sense that “I’ve experienced this before”
Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
Repressed or Constructed Memories of Abuse
The debate between memory researchers and some well-meaning therapists focuses on whether most memories of early childhood abuse are repressed and can be recovered during therapy using “memory work” techniques using leading questions or hypnosis
Improving Memory
Rehearse repeatedly. Make the material meaningful. Activate retrieval cues. Use mnemonic devices. Minimize interference. Sleep more. Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to find out what you do not yet know
Cognition
All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Concept
A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, and people
Prototype
A mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories
Algorithm
A methodical, logical rule, or procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem
Heuristic
Is not a strategy-based solution, but rather a sudden flash of inspiration that solves a problem
Insight
Is not a strategy-based solution, but rather a sudden flash of inspiration that solves a problem
Confirmation Bias
Predisposes us to verify rather than challenge our hypotheses
Fixation
Fixation, such as mental set, may prevent us from taking the fresh perspective that would lead to a solution
Intuition
An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
Representativeness Heuristic
An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
Availability Heuristic
Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
Overconfidence
The tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments
Belief Perseverance
Occurs when we cling to beliefs and ignore evidence that proves these beliefs are wrong
Framing
Sways decisions and judgments by influencing the way an issue is posed. It can also influence beneficial decisions
Divergent Thinking
Expands the number of possible problem solutions
Creative thinking that diverges in different directions
Convergent Thinking
Narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
Motivation
Need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
Instinct Theory
(Evolutionary Perspective): Genetically predisposed behaviors
Drive-reduction Theory
Responses to inner pushes
Arousal Theory
Right levels of stimulation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Priority of some needs over others
Instinct
Fixed, unlearned pattern throughout species
Genes predispose some species-typical behavior
