Content Area 1-2 Flashcards
Psychology
The science of behavior and mental processes
Aristotle
Greek philosopher
One of the greatest thinkers in politics, psychology, and ethics
Wilhelm Wundt
A physician, physiologist, philosopher, and professor
Distinguished psychology as a science from philosophy and biology
Was the first person ever to call himself a psychologist
Edward B. Titchener
English psychologist
Created Structuralism
Structuralism
A method of interpretation and analysis of aspects of human cognition, behavior, culture, and experience that focuses on relationships of contrast between elements in a conceptual system that reflect patterns underlying a superficial diversity
William James
An American philosopher and psychologist
Created Functionalism
Functionalism
Focuses attention on the utility and purpose of behavior that has been modified over years of human existence
Mary Whiton Calkins
An American philosopher and psychologist. Calkins was also the first woman to become president of the American Psychological Association and the American Philosophical Association
Margaret Floy Washburn
Leading American psychologist in the early 20th century, was best known for her experimental work in animal behavior and motor theory development. She was the first woman to be granted a PhD in psychology, and the second woman, after Mary Whiton Calkins, to serve as an APA President
Behaviorism
The theory that human and animal behavior can be explained in terms of conditioning, without appeal to thoughts or feelings and that psychological disorders are best treated by altering behavior patterns
John B. Watson
An American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism
B. F. Skinner
An American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher
Best known for operant conditioning and behaviorism
Little Albert Experiment
The Little Albert Experiment (conducted by Watson and Rayner) demonstrated that classical conditioning—the association of a particular stimulus or behavior with an unrelated stimulus or behavior—works in human beings. In this experiment, a previously unafraid baby was conditioned to become afraid of a rat
Sigmund Freud
An Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis
A system of psychological theory and therapy which aims to treat mental disorders by investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the mind and bringing repressed fears and conflicts into the conscious mind by techniques such as dream interpretation and free association
Humanistic Psychology
a perspective that emphasizes looking at the whole individual and stresses concepts such as free will, self-efficacy, and self-actualization
Humanistic psychology strives to help people fulfill their potential and maximize their well-being
Cognitive Psychology
The scientific study of mental processes such as “attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and thinking”
Cognitive Neuroscience
the scientific field that is concerned with the study of the biological processes and aspects that underlie cognition, with a specific focus on the neural connections in the brain which are involved in mental processes
Behavior
Any action that can be observed or recorded
Mental Processes
Internal, subjective experience inferred from behavior
Nature vs Nurture
Nature refers to biological/genetic predispositions’ impact on human traits
Nurture describes the influence of learning and other influences from one’s environment
Cross-Cultural Psychology
A branch of psychology that looks at how cultural factors influence human behavior.
EXAMPLE: Some cultures might stress individualism and the importance of personal autonomy. Other cultures, however, may place a higher value on collectivism and cooperation among members of the group
Gender Psychology
A set of characteristics or traits that are associated with a certain biological sex
Martin Seligman
An American psychologist, educator, and author of self-help books. Seligman is a strong promoter within the scientific community of his theories of positive psychology and of well-being. His theory of learned helplessness is popular among scientific and clinical psychologists
Positive Psychology
The scientific study of the strengths that enable individuals and communities to thrive. The field is founded on the belief that people want to lead meaningful and fulfilling lives, to cultivate what is best within themselves, and to enhance their experiences of love, work, and play
Evolutionary Psychology
Focuses on how humans are alike because of common biology and evolutionary history
Behavior Genetics
Focuses on differences related to differing genes and environments
Neuroscience
How the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences
Evolutionary
How the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes
Psychodynamic
How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts
Cognitive
How we encode, process, store, and retrieve information
Social-Cultural
How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures
Intuition Overestimation
Hindsight bias
Overconfidence
Tendency to perceive patterns in random events
Scientific Method
Ask a question Do background research Construct a hypothesis Test your hypothesis via experiment Analyze your data and draw a conclusion Report your results
Theory
Explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
Hypothesis
Testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Operational Definition
Carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study
Replication
Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
Descriptive Research
Systematic, objective observation of people.
Its goal is to provide a clear, accurate picture of people’s behaviors, thoughts, and attributes.
Case Study
Examines one individual in depth
Provides fruitful ideas
Cannot be used to generalize conclusions
Naturalistic Observation
Records behavior in natural environment
Describes but does not explain behavior
Can be revealing
General Definition
An observation that two traits or attributes are related to each other (that is, they are “co”-related)
Scientific Definition
A measure of how closely two factors vary together, or how well you can predict a change in one from observing a change in the other
Correlation
Positive Correlation (between 0 and +1.00)
Indicates a direct relationship: Two things increase together or decrease together.
Negative Correlation (between 0 and −1.00)
Indicates an inverse relationship: As one thing increases, the other decreases.
Correlation Coefficient
Provides a statistical measure of how closely two things vary together and how well one predicts the other
Variable
Includes anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure
Scatterplot
A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables
Slope of the points
Amount of scatter
Correlation vs Causation
No matter how strong the relationship is, correlation does not prove causation.
A correlation coefficient helps to provide a clearer view of the world by revealing the extent to which two things relate.
Illusory Correlation
The perception of a relationship between two variables when only a minor or no relationship actually exists.
May be fed by regression toward the mean
Regression Toward The Mean
The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average
Experiments
With experiments, researchers can focus on the possible effects of one or more factors in several ways.
They can manipulate the factors of interest to determine their effects.
They can hold constant (“controlling”) other factors.Experimental group and control group
Double-Blind Procedure
Neither those in the study or those collecting the data know which group is receiving the treatment.
Treatment’s actual effects can be separated from potential placebo effect
Placebo Effect
Effect involves results caused by expectations alone
Variables
Independent Variable - Factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
Confounding Variable - Factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect
Dependent Variable - Factor that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated
Neural and Hormonal Systems
Biology, Behavior, and Mind
Plato
Greek philosopher, known for his Dialogues and for founding his Academy north of Athens, traditionally considered the first university in the western world
Franz Joseph Gall
A german neuroanatomist, physiologist, and pioneer in the study of the localization of mental functions in the brain. Claimed as the founder of phrenology
Plasticity
The ability of the brain to modify its connections or re-wire itself
Neurons
The elementary components of the nervous system—the body’s speedy electrochemical system
Dendrites
Recieves messages from other cells
Axon
Passes messages away from the cell body to other neruons, muscles, or glands
Glial Cells (Glia)
Provide myelin and support, nourish, and protect neurons. They also play a role in thinking and learning
Synapse
A structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another neuron or to the target effector cell
Refractory Period
A period immediately following stimulation during which a nerve or muscle is unresponsive to further stimulation
Threshold
The lowest point at which a particular stimulus will cause a response in an organism
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Affects muscle action, learning, and memory
Neurotransmitter
A chemical substance that is released at the end of a nerve fiber by the arrival of a nerve impulse and, by diffusing across the synapse or junction, causes the transfer of the impulse to another nerve fiber, a muscle fiber, or some other structure
Reuptake
the absorption by a presynaptic nerve ending of a neurotransmitter that it has secreted
Serotonin
Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal
Norepinephrine
Helps control alertness and arousal
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
A major inhibitory neurotransmitter
Glutamate
A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory
Endorphins
Neurotransmitters that influence the perception of pain or pleasure
Agonist
Molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action
Antagonist
Molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action
Nervous System
The body’s speedy electrochemical communication network, which consists of all the nerve cells of the central and peripheral nervous systems
Central Nervous System (CNS)
The brain and the spinal cord are the body’s decision makers
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Sensory and motor neurons connect the CNS to the rest of the body for gathering and transmitting information.
Somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system
Sensory Neurons
Carry messages from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors inward to the spinal cord and brain for processing
Motor Neurons
Carry instructions from the central nervous system out to the body’s muscles
Interneurons (Brain & Spinal Cord)
Communicate with one another and process information between the sensory input and the motor output
Sympathetic
Sympathetic subdivision arouses and expends energy and enables voluntary control of skeletal muscles
Parasympathetic
Parasympathetic subdivision calms and conserves energy, allowing routine maintenance activity, and controls involuntary muscles and glands
Endocrine System
A set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Pituitary Gland
The pituitary is the master gland that influences hormone release by other glands, including the adrenal glands
The Limbic System
Sits between the brain’s older parts and its cerebral hemispheres
Neural centers include the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus
Is linked to emotions, memory, and drives
Controls the nearby pituitary gland
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
A test that detects electrical activity in your brain using small, metal discs (electrodes) attached to your scalp. This activity shows up as wavy lines on an EEG recording
Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
A non-invasive technique for investigating human brain activity. It shows where in the brain activity is produced
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
An imaging test that helps reveal how your tissues and organs are functioning
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
A medical imaging technique used in radiology to form pictures of the anatomy and the physiological processes of the body
Functional MRI (fMRI)
Measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow
Medulla
Located at the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
Pons
Sits above the medulla and helps coordinate movement
Thalamus
The area at the top of the brainstem
Directs sensory messages to the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
Influences multitasking
Reticular Formation
A nerve network running through the brainstem and thalamus
Plays an important role in controlling arousal
The Cerebellum
Aids in the judgment of time, sound and texture discrimination, and emotional control
Coordinates voluntary movement and life-sustaining functions
Helps process and store information outside of awareness
Amygdala
Two lima-bean–sized neural clusters in the limbic system
Linked to emotion
Hypothalamus
Neural structure lying below the thalamus
Directs several maintenance activities
Helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward
Hippocampus
Processes conscious, explicit memories
Decreases in size and function with age
The Cerebral Cortex
Two hemispheres
Each hemisphere has four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal
The Frontal Lobe
the part of the brain that controls important cognitive Skills in humans, such as emotional expression, problem solving, memory, language, judgment, and sexual behaviors
Control Panel of the brain
Parietal Lobe
The parietal lobe integrates sensory information among various modalities, including spatial sense and navigation (proprioception), the main sensory receptive area for the sense of touch in the somatosensory cortex
Occipital Lobe
The visual processing center of the mammalian brain containing most of the anatomical region of the visual cortex
Temporal Lobe
The region where sound is processed and, not surprisingly, it is also a region where auditory language and speech comprehension systems are located
Motor Cortex
The region of the cerebral cortex involved in the planning, control, and execution of voluntary movements
Motor Cortex
The region of the cerebral cortex involved in the planning, control, and execution of voluntary movements
Motor Functions
Electrically stimulating the motor cortex can cause body part movement
Motor Functions
Electrically stimulating the motor cortex can cause body part movement
Somatosensory Cortex
Processes information from skin senses and body parts movement
Visual Cortex
Located at the rear of the brain, receives input from your eyes
Auditory Cortex
Located above the ears, receives information from the ears
Brain Damage
Severed brain and spinal cord neurons usually do not regenerate.
Some brain functions seem preassigned to specific areas.
Some neural tissues can reorganize after damage.
Plasticity may occur after serious damage.
Constraint-Induced Therapy
Aims to rewire the brain and improve the dexterity of brain-damaged people
Corpus Callosum
This large band of neural fibers connects the two brain hemispheres
Split Brain
Hemispheres are isolated by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them. Information sharing does not take place
Intact Brain
Data received by either hemisphere are quickly transmitted to the other side across the corpus callosum
Left Hemisphere
Good at making quick, exact interpretations of language
Right Hemisphere
Excels in making inferences, modulating speech, and facilitating self-awareness
Genes
Biochemical units of heredity that make up chromosomes, the threadlike coils of DNA
When genes are expressed, they provide the code for creating proteins, which form the body’s building blocks
Genome
The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes.
The shared genetic profile that distinguishes humans from other species. The human genome includes 46 chromosomes in 23 matched sets; each chromosome has the same gene locations.
Behavior Genetics
The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
Heredity
The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring
Environment
Every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
Chromosomes
Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
Complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
Temperament
A person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity; apparent from first weeks of life and generally persists into adulthood
Heritability
The proportion of variation among individuals that can be attributed to genes
Interaction
The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)
Molecular Genetics
the study of the molecular structure and function of genes
Epigenetics
The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change
Evolutionary Psychology
The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind using principles of natural selection
Natural Selection
The principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
Parent Influence
Education and career path Cooperation Self-discipline Responsibility Charitableness Religion Interaction style with authority figures
Peer Influence
Learning cooperation skills Learning the path to popularity Choice of music and other recreation Choice of clothing and other cultural choices Good and bad habits
Culture
Patterns of ideas, attitudes, values, lifestyle habits, and traditions shared by a group of people and passed on to future generations
Culture Shock
Feeling lost about which behaviors are appropriate
Individualist Culture
Value independence. They promote personal ideals, strengths, and goals, pursued in competition with others, leading to individual achievement and finding a unique identity
Collectovist Culture
Value interdependence. They promote group and societal goals and duties, and blending in with group identity, with achievement attributed to mutual support
Sex
The biologically influenced characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man, and woman
Gender
Roles and characteristics that a culture expects from those defined as male and female
Men
Men are 4 times more likely to die by suicide or develop alcohol dependence.
Men are more likely to have childhood diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder, color-blindness, or ADHD.
Men are at greater risk for antisocial personality disorder
Women
Women enter puberty sooner and live about 5 years longer.
Women have 70% more fat and 20% less muscle, and are 5 inches shorter.
Women have twice the risk of developing depression and 10 times the risk of developing an eating disorder
Aggression
Any act intended to harm someone physically or emotionally
Relational Aggression
An act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person’s relationship or social standing.
Women more likely than men
Minor Physical Aggression
Equally likely for men and women
Extreme Violent Acts
Men commit more than women
Interaction Style
Men offer opinions; women offer support
X Chromosome
Sex chromosome found in both men and women
Y Chromosome
Sex chromosome found only in males
Testosterone
An androgen that stimulates growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and development of male sex characteristics during puberty
Estrogens
Sex hormones that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females than by males
Puberty
The period during which adolescents reach sexual maturity and become capable of reproduction
Primary Sex Characteristics
Body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible
Secondary Sex Characteristics
Nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair
Intersex
A condition present at birth due to unusual combinations of male and female chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy; possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes
Spermarche
First ejaculation
Menarche
First menstrual period
Gender Role
The set of expected behaviors for males or for females
Shift over time and place
Gender Identity
The personal sense of being male or female
Social Learning Theory
Social behavior is learned by observing and imitating others’ gender-linked behavior and by being rewarded or punished
Gender Typing
More than imitation is involved; children gravitate toward what feels right
Androgyny
Displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics
Transgender
Umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex
Biopsychosocial Approach
Considers all the factors that influence our individual development
Biological factors (evolution, genes, hormones, and brains)
Psychological factors (experiences, beliefs, feelings, and expectations)
Social–cultural factors (parental and peer influences, cultural individualism or collectivism, and gender norms)
Nature vs Nurture
How does our genetic inheritance (our nature) interact with our experiences (our nurture) to influence our development?
Zygote
The life cycle begins at conception, when one sperm cell unites with an egg to form a zygote (fertilized egg). The zygote enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division
Embryo
The zygote’s inner cells become the embryo; the outer cells become the placenta. The embryo is the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through 2 months
Fetus
In the next 6 weeks, body organs begin to form and function. By 9 weeks, the fetus is recognizably human
Teratogen
An agent, such as a chemical or virus, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
Fetal Alchohol Syndrome (FAS)
Physical and mental abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features
Newborn
Arrives with automatic reflex responses that support survival—sucking, tonguing, swallowing, and breathing
Cries to elicit help and comfort
Searches for sights and sounds linked to other humans, especially mother
Smells and sees well and uses sensory equipment to learn
Possesses a biologically rooted temperament
Habituation
Fetuses have adapted to a vibrating, honking device on the mother’s abdomen
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2 Years)
Tools for thinking and reasoning change with development
Adaptation
Assimilation
Accommodation
Object Permanence
Awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
Preoperational Stage (2-7 Years)
Children learn to use language but cannot yet perform the mental operations of concrete logic
Conservation
Egocentrism/curse of knowledge
Test of Conservation
Refers to a logical thinking ability that allows a person to determine that a certain quantity will remain the same despite adjustment of the container, shape, or apparent size
Theory of Mind
The ability to attribute mental states — beliefs, intents, desires, emotions, knowledge, etc. — to oneself, and to others, and to understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one’s own
Concrete Operational (7-11 Years)
Children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.
They begin to understand changes in form before changes in quantity.
They begin to understand simple math and conservation
Formal Operational (12-Adult)
Children are no longer limited to concrete reasoning based on actual experience.
They are able to think abstractly
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
A serious developmental disorder that impairs the ability to communicate and interact
Infant Attachment
Emotional tie with another person—shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver, and showing distress on separation
Critical Period
Optimal period early in the life when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development
Imprinting
Process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life
Strange Situation
These experiments show that some children are securely attached and others are insecurely attached.
Temperament and Attachment
Difficult: Irritable, intense, and unpredictable
Easy: Cheerful, relaxed, and feeding and sleeping on predictable schedules
Self-Concept
an understanding and evaluation of who we are—emerges gradually
Authoritarian Parents
Parents are coercive. They impose rules and expect obedience
Permissive Parents
Parents are unrestraining. They make few demands, set few limits, and use little punishment
Negligent Parents
Parents are uninvolved; they are neither demanding nor responsive. These careless and inattentive parents do not seek a close relationship with their children
Authoritative
Parents are confrontive. They are demanding and responsive. They exert control by setting rules but, especially with older children, encourage open discussion and allow exceptions
Adolescence
The transition from puberty to social independence
Early-Maturing Boys
More popular, self-assured, and independent; at greater risk for alcohol use, delinquency, and premature sexual activity
Early-Maturing Girls
Mismatch between physical and emotional maturity may encourage relationships with older teens; teasing or sexual harassment may occur
Teens
Frontal lobe development and synaptic pruning may lead to irrational and risky behaviors
Developing Reasoning Power
Piaget
Develop new abstract thinking tools (formal operations)
Developing Moral Reasoning
Kohlberg
Use moral reasoning that develops in a universal sequence to guide moral actions
Moral Action
Moral action feeds moral attitudes.
Mischel: The ability to delay gratification is linked to more positive outcomes in adulthood.
Preconventional Morality (Before Age 9)
Self-interest; obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards
Conventional Morality (Early Adolescence)
Uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order
Postconventional Morality (Adolescence +)
Actions reflect belief in basic rights andself-defined ethical principles
Adolescence Struggle
Identity versus role confusion; continues into adulthood
Social Identity
The “we” aspect of self-concept that comes from group memberships
Early Adulthood (Physical Development)
Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory keenness, and cardiac output peak in the mid-twenties
Middle Adulthood (Physical Development)
Physical vigor is more closely linked to health and exercise than age.
Physical decline is gradual
Gradual decline in fertility
Female: Menopause
Male: Gradual decline in sperm count, testosterone level, erection and ejaculation speed
Late Adulthood (Physical Development)
Life expectancy worldwide is now 71 years.
Telomere tips shorten, leading to aging.
Visual sharpness, distance perception, and stamina diminish; pupils shrink and become less transparent.
Immune system weakens; susceptibility to life-threatening disease increases.
Neural processing lag occurs; brain regions related to memory begin to atrophy; speech slows.
Exercise slows aging and stimulates brain cell development and neural connections
Early Adulthood (Aging & Memory)
Peak time for learning and memory
Middle Adulthood (Aging & Memory)
Greater decline in ability to recall rather than recognize memory
Late Adulthood (Aging & Memory)
Better retention of meaningful than meaningless information; longer word production time
End of Life
Terminal decline; typically occurs during last four years of life
Alzheimers Disease
Marked by neural plaques
Often has an onset after age 80
Leads to a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities
Commitments (Ages & Stages)
Intimacy (forming close relationships)
Generativity (being productive and supporting future generations)
Love (Ages & Stages)
Pair-bonding
Romantic attraction and chance encounters
Proximity
Marriage (Adulthood Commitments)
Satisfaction is related to shared interests and values, mutual emotional and material support, and self-disclosure.
Marriage is predictive of happiness, sexual satisfaction, income, and mental health
Divorce (Adulthood Commitments)
Divorce rates reflect women’s increased ability to support themselves and higher expectations for their mates.
Trial marriages are linked to higher divorce rates
Work (Adulthood Commitments)
Work provides a sense of competence, accomplishment, and self-definition.
Happiness is about having work that fits your interests and provides you with a sense of competence and accomplishment. It is giving generously of your time and resources
Grief
Grief is severe when the loved one’s death comes suddenly and before the expected time.
Grief reactions vary by culture and by individuals within cultures
The 5 Stages of Grief
Denial & Isolation Anger Bargaining Depression Acceptance
