Psychology

Question 1

What is sexual selection

Answer 1

It refers to the evolutionary explanation on why humans prefer some partners over other
- it argues that it a behavioural feature has been genetically inherited by one generation from another it must help attract a mate and have healthy offspring

Question 2

What is anisogamy

Answer 2

• is the differences between male and female sex cells

Males’ sex cells (sperm) is produced in large quantities, quickly replenished and created continuously from puberty to old age.

On the contrary, females’ sex cells (eggs or ova) take a lot of energy to produce, are created in limited numbers during specific time intervals and their production only lasts for a certain number of fertile years.

These differences mean that males and females need to use different strategies to achieve reproductive success.

Before the invention of DNA testing, males could never be sure that a particular child is theirs, so the reproductively successful strategy for a male would involve having sex with, and impregnating, as many women as possible.

For women, however, the energetically expensive process of producing an egg and then carrying a child in the womb for nine months would mean that she needs a partner who will be committed to the relationship in the long run and provide resources for her and the child, ensuring the child’s survival.

Anisogamy can also explain the 2 types of sexual selection: inter sexual selection and intra sexual selection

Question 3

What is inter sexual selection

Answer 3

• between sexes
• preferred strategy by female who chooses quality over quantity

Female have to be very choosy when picking their mate as it is a much bigger investment in terms of time, energy and resources

So female best mating strategy is to choose a genetically fit partner who can and will provide resources such as sperm, money, security, intelligence
This leaves men competing for the best ( high quality female)

What women prefer in male partners determines the features that are passed onto the offspring such as height
Women want to have sons who are also eventually found more desirable by opposite sex - known as the sexy sons hypothesis
This is the desirable characteristic of the female mate will be passed down to their sons

Question 4

What is intra sexual selection

Answer 4

• preferred strategy by males who go for quantity over quality
• this is the competition between males to get the high quality female

The winner get to pass on his winning characteristics to his offspring

This has led to dimorphism- the obvious differences in sexes e.g. men being bigger/stronger
This is because in a male fight the larger male more likely to win and therefore mate but females don’t compete and so their is no evolutionary drive for larger females

Psychological consequences -acting more aggressively to protect female from competition

• mate either as many female as possible to to minimal energy required to produce sperm
• makes preference for youth and sensitivity and fertility in female as this suits their optimum mating strategy

Question 5

Sexual selection - evaluation

Answer 5

1. Buss found universal trends across 33 different countries and sample size of 10,000 adults
   Results: women desired men with good financial prospects, both sexes wanted mates who were intelligent , men desired women who were younger(. In better position to have children)
   The findings reflect sex differences in mate strategies due to anisogamy. Finding also generalizable giving further support to the evolutionary theory
2. Evidence to suggest males are more likely to engage in casual sex and engage in polygamous relationships
   Clark and Hatfield found that 75% of college males compared to 0% of females would be willing to sleep with a stranger if this stranger had approached them and complimented them
   Supports the idea that men have an evolutionary predisposition to impregnate as many women as possible due to high rate is sperm production and little energy to do so.( intra sexual selection)

3 social and cultural change
Women no longer dependent on men- they work and make their own money which means = rely less on men for resources
Chang compared partner preferences in china over 25 years
Finding:
Some had change but others remains the same, this is correlated with higher social change at the time
Suggest mate preferences are a combination of evolution and culture= theory doesn’t account for cultural differences = incomplete

-waynforth and Dunbar found that 43% of males sought youthful mate compared to 25% of females
They also found that 44% of males sought a physically attractive partner compared to 22% of females
Finally found that women advertise their physical attractiveness and men advertise their resources
- supports idea that males and females have different preferences in partners

Question 6

Factors affecting attraction : self disclosure

What is self disclosure

Answer 6

• revealing personal info about yourself
  Romantic partners reveal more about their true self as their relationship develops
  These self disclosure about one deepest thought and feelings can strengthen a romantic bond when used appropriately

Question 7

Factors affecting attraction : self disclosure

Social penetration theory

Answer 7

Altman and Taylor social penetration theory ,suggest how self disclosure is the gradual process of revealing your inner self to someone else
In romantic relationship it involves the reciprocal exchange of info between intimate partners

When one partner reveals some personal info they must display trust and the other partner must also reveal sensitive info

As they increasingly disclose more and more info to each other= romantic partners penetrate more deeply into each other lives= gain greater understanding of each other
- self disclose more reciprocated

Question 8

Factors affecting attraction : self disclosure

Breadth and depth of self disclosure

Answer 8

According to Altman and Taylor self disclosure has 2 elements - breadth and depth

• at the start we disclose a lot about ourselves at the start of a relationship but what we reveal is superficial
  Is the low risk info we would reveal to anyone

Breadth of disclosure is narrow as many topics are off limits in early stage of relationship. If reveal too much too soon= could threaten the relationship

However as relationship develops = self disclosure becomes deeper= removing more and more layers to reveal our true selves=
Eventually we are prepared to reveal intimate, high risk info- like painful memories, strongly held beliefs, secrets

Question 9

Factors affecting attraction : self disclosure

Reciprocity of self disclosure

Answer 9

Reis and Shaver- point out for a relationship to develop, there needs to be reciprocal elements to disclosure
Once you have decided to disclose something that reveals your true self= hopefully partner responds in a way that’s rewarding, with understanding and also their own intimate thoughts and feeling

So there is a balance of self disclosure between both partners in a successful romantic relationship = increases feelings of intimacy and deepens the relationship

Question 10

Factors affecting attraction : self disclosure
Evaluation

Answer 10

1 support from research study
- Sprecher and Hendricks studies heterosexual dating couples and found strong correlation between measures of satisfaction and self disclosure
This shows that if could use self disclose they can build stronger relationships = become more satisfied and committed to their romantic relationship

2. Much self disclosure research is correlational such as sprecher and hendrick.
   Although it’s usually assumed that greater self disclosure creates more satisfaction = correlation does not tell us if a valid conclusion to draw as it contain quantitative data
   Means that findings may not be in detail and is likely researchers can ignore other factors affecting attraction like physical attractiveness = therefore factor too simplistic

3.cultural differences
Tang et al reviewed research literature regarding sexual self disclosure = concluded that men and women in USA self disclose significantly more sexual thought and feelings than men and women in China
The levels of disclosure could be linked to relationship satisfaction in those culture
- therefore limited explanation of romantic relationship = base in findings from individualistic culture not generalizable to other cultures

4. Real life applications
   - research in SD can help people who want to improve communication in their relationships
   - Hass and Stafford found they 57% of gay men and women in study said that open and honest self disclosure was main way they maintain and deepen their committed relationships
   Therefore this support use of therapies which focus on increasing the depth and breadth of SD for couples who stuggle with issues like trust and intimacy
   - support the social penetration theory = increasing validity of theory

Question 11

Factors affecting attraction: physical attractiveness

The importance of physical attractiveness

Answer 11

• shackelford and Larsen found that people with symmetrical faces are rated more attractive due to it being a signal of genetic fitness

People also attracted to faces with neotenous features such as widely separated and large eyes, a delicate chin, small nose— because these trigger a protective and caring instinct = valuable resource for female wanting to reproduce

Physical attractiveness not only important in start of relationship = McNulty et al found evidence that the initial attractiveness that bought partners together continued to be an important feature of relationship after marriage for at least several years

Question 12

Factors affecting attraction: physical attractiveness

The halo effect

Answer 12

The halo effect suggest how physical attractiveness tends to have a disproportionate influence on our judgement of a person other attribute such as their personality
- have the preconceived idea that personality traits people must have are positive

Phrase counted by Dion ‘ what is beautiful is good’

E.g. Dion et al found that physically attractive people are consistently rated as kind, strong, sociable and successful compared to unattractive people

These beliefs increase the likelihood that such attractive people develop these traits, and so displays the process of a self- fulfilling prophecy

Question 13

Factors affecting attraction: physical attractiveness

The matching hypothesis

Answer 13

The hypothesis states that people choose romantic partners who are roughly of similar physical attractiveness to each other.

To do this we make realistic judgment about our own value to potential partners
- this is to avoid being rejected by someone out of our league

• it is proposed by Elaine Walster and her colleagues

Question 14

Evaluation - of psychical attractiveness

Answer 14

1. Research support
   Palmer and Peterson (2012) found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable and competent than unattractive people. This halo effect was so powerful that it persisted even when participants knew that these ‘knowledgeable people had no particular expertise.
   the halo effect = found to apply in many other areas of everyday life, confirming that physical attractiveness is an important factor in the initial formation of relationships
2. Research support for matching hypothesis
   Feingold-1988) carried out a meta-analysis of 17 studies and found a significant correlation in ratings of attractiveness between romantic partners. This is especially supportive of the matching hypothesis because the studies looked at actual partners, which is a more realistic approach.
3. PA is not affected extensively by cultural relativism, with both individualist and collectivist cultures finding similar features attractive,
   as suggested by Cunningham et al (1995). These features include large eyes, high eyebrows and sharp cheekbones, and this is applicable across both Asian and Western male respondents, as demonstrated by Wheeler and Kim (1997). Therefore, this means that although the influence of physical attractiveness varies between individuals, what is considered ‘attractive’ is relatively consistent.

4.Research contradicting the matching hypothesis
Taylor et al. (2011) studied the activity logs of a popular online dating site
Online daters sought meetings with potential partners who were more physically attractive than them. It seems they did not consider their own level of attractiveness when making decisions about who to date.

Question 15

Factors affecting attraction- filter theory

Answer 15

An explanation of relationship formation. It states that a series of different factors progressively limits the range of available romantic partners to a much smaller pool of possibilities.

The filters include social demography, similarity in attitudes and complementarity,

Question 16

Factors affecting attraction- filter theory

Social demography - 1st level of filter

Answer 16

• refers to a wide range of factors that influences chances of potential partners meeting each other in the first place

They include geographical location (or proximity), social class, level of education, ethnic group, religion,

You are much more likely to meet people who are physically close and share several demographic characteristics- e.g ethnicity, religious beliefs, and educational level= most find such similarities attractive

The key benefit of proximity is accessibility. It doesn’t require much effort to meet people who live in the same area

Question 17

Factors affecting attraction- filter theory

Similarity in attitude

Answer 17

The second filter is similarity in attitudes, which is particularly important in short-term relationship i.e. less than 18 months in duration.

This describes basic similarities in terms of core beliefs about significant topics, such as love, sex and religion.

Large dissimilarities in the attitudes expressed between two partners may cause the relationship to end, because of the incompatability that wor result in the long-term.

Question 18

Factors affecting attraction- filter theory

Complementary - 3rd level of filter

Answer 18

The third filter concerns the ability of romantic partners to meet each other’s needs. Two partners complement each other when they have traits that the other lacks. For example, Or perhaps one partner is more dominant in the relationship than the other. Kerckhoff and Davis found that the need for complementarity was more important for the long-term couples.

. Complementarity is attractive because it gives two romantic partners the feeling that together they form a whole, which adds depth to a relationship and makes it more likely to floursh.

Question 19

Factors affecting attraction- filter theory
Evaluation

Answer 19

research support,
For example, Peter Winch (1958) found evidence that similarities of personality, interests and attitudes between partners are typical of the earliest stages of a relationship
This echoes the matching hypothesis, but not just in terms of physical attractiveness.
Between partners happily married for several years, complementarity of needs is more important than similarity , according to Winch,

Filter theory suggest that people are initially attracted to each other because they are similar.
But there’s evidence that this direction of causality is wrong
, Davis and Rusbult (2001) discovered an attitude alignment effect in longer-term relationships. Romantic partners over time bring their attitudes into line with each other’s, again suggesting that similarity is an effect of initial attraction and not the cause.
This finding is not predicted by filter theory.

Lack of temporal validity
The rise of online dating in recent years has changed beyond recognition the process of beginning a romantic relationship. It has reduced the importance of some social demographic variables.
Technology such as the Internet and mobile apps like Tinder have made meeting potential partners easier than ever, to the extent that we might well pursue a date with someone outside the usual demographic limits (e.g. different culture or social class) than would have applied, say, 30 years ago.
- so lacks TV as is can only explain dating phenomena which have been restricted to era before the internet

• research has challenged the claim of filter theory that complementary become more important than similarity later in a relationship.
  Anderson et al found in a longitudinal study that cohabiting partners became more similar in their emotional responses overtime
  suggest complementarity is not necessarily a common feature of longer term relationships
• invalid theory

Question 20

Theories of Romantic relationships: social exchange theory

What is it

Answer 20

A theory of how relationships form and develop. It assumes that romantic partners act out of self interest in exchanging rewards and cost

A satisfying and committed relationship is maintained when rewards exceeds cost and potential alternative are less attractive than current relationship

-also value of rewards and cost might change over course of a relationship

Rewards includes beneficial things like companionship, sex, emotional support

Cost- expensive, time, stress, energy, opportunity cost
Meaning your investment of time and energy in your current relationship means using resources that you cannot invest elsewhere

Question 21

Theories of Romantic relationships: social exchange theory
How do we measure the profit in a romantic relationships

Answer 21

Comparison level
The first comparison level is amount of reward you believe you deserve to get

It develops out of our experience of previous relationship- which feed into our expectations

It is also influenced by social norms that determine what is widely considered within a culture to be a reasonable level of reward

Reflected in media, book, film, tv programs

• we consider relationship worth pursuing if our CL is high. There is an link with self esteem
  Low self esteem= low CL = satisfied gaining small profit from a relationship
  High self esteem= believe worth a lot more

Question 22

Theories of Romantic relationships: social exchange theory

Comparison level for alternatives

Answer 22

• this is the second measure of profit= provides a wider context for our current relationship

SET predicts that we will stay in our current relationship only so long we believe it is more rewarding than the alternative

CLalt we adopt will depend on the state of our current relationship
So if the cost of our current relationship outweighs rewards= alternatives become more attractive

Question 23

Theories of Romantic relationships: social exchange theory

Stages of relationship development

Answer 23

Another feature of Thibault and Kelley social exchange theory is the stages of relationship development :

Sampling stage- we explore the rewards and cost of social exchange by experimenting with them in our own relationships or by observing other do so

Bargaining stage- this marks the beginning of relationship= when romantic partners start exchanging various rewards and cost, negotiating and identifying what is most profitable

Commitment stage- as time goes on, the source of cost and reward become more predictable and relationship become more stable as reward increases/ cost lessen

Institutionalization stage- the partner now settle for as the norm of the relationship, in term of reward and cost are firmly established

Question 24

Theories of Romantic relationships: social exchange theory

Evaluation

Answer 24

Direction of cause and effect
SET argues that dissatisfaction sets in when we suspect that costs outweigh rewards or that alternatives are more attractive, Argyle (1987) points out that we don’t measure costs and rewards in a relationship, nor do we constantly consider the attractiveness of alternatives not until we are dissatisfied with the relationship first
Research supports this view that dissatisfaction comes first.E.g Rowland Miller found that people who rated themselves as being in a highly committed relationship spent less time looking at images of attractive people. So people in committed relationships ignore even the most attractive alternatives.

SET ignores equity
There is much research support the role of equity in relationships, and the view that this is more important than just the balance of rewards a and cost
As inequity is likely to be a major cause of dissatisfaction
Neglect of this factor= SET is a limited explanation for significant proportion of research finding on relationships

SET deals in concepts that are difficult to quantify.
Rewards and costs have been defined superficially (e.g. money) in order to measure them.
But psychological rewards and costs are more difficult to define, especially when they vary from one person to another. The concept of comparison levels=problematic, It is unclear what the values of CL and CLalt must be before dissatisfaction threatens a relationship.
How attractive do alternatives need to be, or by how much should costs outweigh rewards?
- therefore not possible to measure rewards and cost in a valid and reliable way

The majority of studies supporting
SET use artificial tasks in artificial conditions.
For example, one common procedure involves two strangers working together on a game-playing scenario in which rewards and costs are distributed.
The two ‘partners’ know nothing about each other and their so-called
‘relationship’ depends entirely on the task they are performing together.

Question 25

Theories of romantic relationships

Equity theory- what is it

Answer 25

An economic theory of how relationships develop.

As such, it acknowledges the impact of rewards and costs on relationship satisfaction, but criticises social exchange theory for ignoring the central role of equity

the perception that partners have that the distribution of rewards and costs in the relationship is fair.

Question 26

Theories of romantic relationships

The role of equity

Answer 26

The term ‘equity means fairness.

According to Elaine Walster and her colleagues (1978), what matters most with equity is that both partners’ level of profit (rewards minus costs) is roughly the same.

This is not the same as equality where levels of costs and rewards have to be the same (.e., ‘equal’) for each partner.

When there is a lack of equity=partner overbenefits and the other underbenefits from the relationship=dissatisfaction and unhappiness
Both overbenefit and underbenefit are examples of inequity although it is the underbenefitted partner who is likely to feel the greatest dissatisfaction, in the form of anger, hostility, resentment, and humiliation.
The overbenefitted partner will likely feel guilt, discomfort, and shame.
Thus satisfaction is about perceived fairness

Question 27

Theories of romantic relationships
According to equity theory…

Answer 27

• it’s not the size or amount of rewards and cost that matters- it’s the ratio of the two to each other

So if 1 partners puts a lot into relationship but at the same time gets a lot out of it= seems fair enough

Question 28

Theories of romantic relationships : equity theory

Consequences of inequity

Answer 28

• partner will become distressed and dissatisfied with the relationship

The greater the perceived inequity= greater the dissatisfaction

Equity theory predicts a strong correlation between two

1 what makes us most dissatisfied is the change in the level of perceived equity as time goes on. Such as at the start of relationship = may be perfectly natural to contribute more than you recieve
But if relationship develop in such a way , that you continue to put more in relationship and get less of it• not feel as satisfied anymore

Dealing with inequity- partner will work hard to make relationship more equitable as long as they believe relationship is salvageable
The more unfair relationship feels = harder to restore equity

Or they will revise their perception of rewards and cost so that the relationship feels more equitable to them, even if nothing changes- so they are accepting certain cost as a norm such as untidiness, abuse

Question 29

Theories of romantic relationships : equity theory
Evaluation

Answer 29

Supporting evidence includes studies of real-life relationships that confirm equity theory as a more valid explanation than SET.
Mary Utne and her colleagues (1984) carried out a survey of 118 recently-married couples, measuring equity with two self-report scales. These husbands and wives were aged between 16 and 45 years, and had been together for more than two years before marrying.
found that couples who considered their relationship equitable were more satisfied than those who saw themselves as overbenefitting or underbenefitting. validity as an explanation of romantic relationships.

2. cultural differences in link between equity and satisfaction
   A researcher compared couples in a collectivist culture with those in an individualist culture).
   Couples from an individualist culture considered their relationships to be most satisfying when the relationship was equitable, whereas partners in the collectivist culture were most satisfied when they were overbenefitting. This was true of both men and women.
   - This suggests that equity theory’s not universal. So the theory is limited because it cannot account for this cultural difference.

3 individual differences
Huseman et al. (1987) suggest that some people are less sensitive to equity than others. They describe some partners as benevolent=prepared to contribute more to the relationship than they get out of it. Others are entitleds who believe they deserve to be overbenefitted and accept it without feeling distressed or guilty.
This shows that equity is not necessarily a global feature of all romantic relationships and, contrary to the claims of the theory, is certainly not a universal law of social interaction.

3. Suggested by Clark and Mills that equity theory may be more valid in certain types of relationships
   Research studies strongly support the view that equity plays a central role in causal friendship, business/ work relationships
   But evidence that equity is important in romantic relationships is more mixed
   - suggest they SET is a limited explanation for only some type of relationship

Question 30

Theories of romantic relationships: rusbult investment model

Answer 30

According to Rusbult, commitment depends on satisfaction level, comparison with alternatives and investment size

• the investment model is a development of social exchange theory

Question 31

Theories of romantic relationships: rusbult investment model

Satisfaction and comparison level

Answer 31

Satisfaction- the extent to which romantic partners feel the reward of the relationship exceeds cost
- is based on the concept of the comparison level

Comparison with alternatives- a judgement that partners make concerning whether a relationship with a different partner would bring more reward and free cost

Question 32

Theories of romantic relationships: rusbult investment model

Investment size

Answer 32

Investment are the resources associated with a romantic relationship which the partner me would lose if the relationship were to end

Rusbult argues there’s 2 major types of investment

Intrinsic investment- are any resources we put directly into relationship such s money and possessions
They can also be resources less easy to quantify such as energy, emotion, self disclosure

Extrinsic investment are resources that previously did not feature in the relationship shop but now closely associated with it. They are tangible which include possessions bought together such as car, mutual friends, children
Also shared memories

So putting all these together= if partners experiencing high level of satisfaction, alternatives less attractive and the size of their investment increasing = predict partners will be committed to relationships

Question 33

Theories of romantic relationships: rusbult investment model

Satisfaction vs commitment

Answer 33

Rusbult argued that commitment is more important in relationships than satisfaction

This is because it helps explain why dissatisfied partners may choose to stay in relationship as they may be committed to their partner

They are committed as they made an investment they they don’t want to go to waste= therefore will work hard to maintain and repair a damaged relationship

Question 34

Theories of romantic relationships: rusbult investment model

Relationship maintenance mechanism

Answer 34

Commitment expresses itself in everyday maintenance behavior

Partners act to promote the relationship
They will also put their partners interest first and forgive them for any serious transgressions

Committed partners also think about each other , they are unrealistically positive about their partners and negative about tempting alternatives and other people relationships

Question 35

Theories of romantic relationships: rusbult investment model

Evaluation

Answer 35

1 explain abusive relationships

Caryl Rusbult and John Martz (1995) studied ‘battered’ women at a shelter and found that those most likely to return to an abusive partner (i.e. were most committed) reported making the greatest investment and having the fewest attractive alternatives. The model recognises that a victim of IPV does not have to be satisfied with a relationship to stay in it.
Shows investment model is useful explanation of abusive relationships

2 + Athough sell-report measures are usually criticised as lacking objectivity and creating qualitative data, this is not the case with Rusbult’s model.
The key elements of his model focus on an individual’s perception of their investments, resources and energy. This makes sense and has high ecological validity when considering that an individual’s perception of their investments is often different to their partner’s perception in the instance of relationship breakdown. Therefore, Rusbult’s investment model has used the correct methodology to accurately reflect the subjective nature of the model’s features.

3
Oversimplifies investment
Wind Goodfriend and Christopher Agnew (2008) point out that there is more to investment than just the resources you have already put into a relationship.
After all, in the early stages of a romantic relationship the partners will have made very few actual investments.
Goodfriend and Agnew extended Rusbult’s original model by including the investment romantic partners make in their future plans. They are motivated to commit to each other because they want to see their cherished plans for the future work out.
The original model = limited explanation of romantic relationships= it fails to recognise the true complexity of investment, specifically how planning for the future influences commitment.

4. Based on correlational research
   Strong correlations have been found between all the important factors predicted by the investment model. However, even the strongest correlation is no evidence of causation.
   It could be that the more committed you feel towards your partner, the more investment you are willing to make in the relationship, so the direction of causality may be the reverse of that predicted by the model.

Question 36

Theories of romantic relationships: Duck phase model breakdown

Answer 36

I’m an explanation of the stages people go through when their relationship is not working

Once one partner is dissatisfied = there are 4 Phases in the process, each with a different focus: intra-psychic, dyadic, social and grave dressing

Question 37

Theories of romantic relationships: Duck phase model breakdown

Intra-psychic phase and dyadic phase

Answer 37

Intra psychic phase
“ I can’t stand this anymore “ indication they something has change
This focus of this phase is on cognitive processes occurring within individuals
The dissatisfied partner have reach the point that they are evaluating the cost/ reward of relationships
Most of these processes are private and unlikely to be shared unless potentially to a trusted friend

Dyadic phase
There is a series of confrontations over a period of time, in which relationship is discussed and dissatisfaction is aired
These are chats by anxiety, hostility, complaints about lack of equity
There are 2 possible outcomes— a determination to continue breaking up the relationship or renewed desire to repair it

Question 38

Social phase and grave dressing phase

Answer 38

Social phase
Where break up is made public
Partner will seek support. Mutual friends find they are expected to choose a side
Gossip are traded and encouraged
Some friends may provide reinforcement and reassurance
Others will be judgmental and place a blame on 1 partner or the other
Some may provide a previously secret info
Some may still dry to help repair relationships

Grave dressing phase
The focus on this phase is on the aftermath
Confirms the end of a relationship
Key to this face is ‘keeping good face and maintaining a positive social image. This may involve fabricating false stories about the cause of the end of the relationship to make it more socially acceptable . So they blame their previous partner

Both partners make new plans to carry on with their lives, taking with them valuable lessons learnt from the previous relationship.

Question 39

Theories of romantic relationships: Duck phase model breakdown

Evaluation

Answer 39

serious methodological issues associated with the research upon which Duck’s hase Model was based upon.
, much of the research features self-report measures which are completed retrospectively after the end of the relationship.
means that the data may rely too much on the respondents’ accuracy of memory and a realistic perception of the relationship
in addition, since researchers are unwilling to intervene at the early stages of relationship breakdown = means that these early stages are mostly speculative and their workings inferred from the later tages. Therefore, these methodological issues draws doubts over the validity and accuracy of Duck Phase Model as an explanation for relationship breakdown.

Useful real life applications
-model recognize that different repair strategies are more effective at particular pint in the breakdown than at others
E.g Duck recommended people in the intra-psychic phase could be encourage to focus their brooding on positive aspect of their partners
Also in dyadic phase- focus on improving wider social skills = helps foster greater stability in relationship
Also such insight could be used in relationships counselling

Flemlee’s ‘fatal attraction hypothesis’ (1995) may be a better and more valid explanation of relationship breakdown compared to the Phase Model.
This is because the fatal attraction hypothesis, which suggests that the initially desirable characteristics become less so as the relationship progresses, actually explains the cause of relationship breakdown as opposed to simply the progression of the breakdown (as the Phase Model does).
means that Duck’s model may lack ecological validity as it is a general description of a universal sequence of stages involved in relationship breakdown, as opposed to a concrete explanation.

Cultural bias
- the model firmly based on experiences of relationships in Western cultures such as the USA
According to Moghaddam- relationship in individualistic cultures are generally voluntary, and frequently come to an end
Relationship in collectivist cultur= more likely to be less easy to end as it involves a wide family, some cases arranged with little involvement in partner
Therefore unlikely that the process of relationship breakdown is identical across different cultures
Affect validity

Question 40

Virtual relationship in social media

Reduce cues theory

Answer 40

According to Sproull and Kiesler CMC relationship are less effective than FTF ones as they lack many of the cues we normally depend on in FtF interactions

These include nonverbal cues such as our physical appearance

CMC lacks cues of emotional state such s our facial expressions and tone of voice= leads to de individualization as it reduces people sense of individual identity= encourages disinhibition in relating others

Virtual relationship are therefore more likely to involve blunt, even aggressive communication = reluctant to self disclose

Unlikely to want to initiate relationship with someone who is impersonal

Question 41

Virtual relationship in social media

Hyper personal model

Answer 41

Walther shires online relationship can be more personal, involved greater self disclosure than FtF ones

Because of CMC relationship can develop very quickly as self disclosure happens earlier = once establish= more intense and intimate

Can also end quickly as the high excitement level of interaction isn’t matched by level of trust between the relationship partners
COOPER AND sportolari called this the boom and bust phenomenon of online relationships

• a key festure of self disclosure in virtual relationships is that they can manipulate their online image than they would in FtF situations
  This is the selective self presentation
  People online have more control over what to disclose and the cues they send.
  So they self present in a positive, idealizing way to promote intimacy
• another aspect of CMC that promotes self disclosure is anonymity
  When your aware that other people do not know your identity= feel less accountable for your behavior = may disclose more about yourself to a stranger than to even you most intimate partner

Question 42

Virtual relationship in social media
Absence of gating

Answer 42

• a gate in this context is any obstacles to the formation of a relationship

FtF interaction is said to be gated = such as physical unattractiveness, a stammer, social anxiety- interfere with development of relationship

• McKenna and Bargh argue they a huge advance to CMC is a sense of gating

Means that relationship can develop to the point where self disclosure becomes more frequent and deeper

A sense of gating works by refocusing attention on self disclosure and away from what may be considered superficial features

• a sense of gating may also mean people are free to create online identities that they could never manage FtF

Question 43

Virtual relationship in social media
Evaluation

Answer 43

Research support for the hyperpersonal model
Monica Whittty and Adam Joinson summarise a wealth de evidence that this is the case. For example, questions asked in onine discussions tend to be very direct, probing and intimate. This is quite different from FtF conversations, which are often hedged around with ‘small talk”.
Responses are likewise direct and to the point.
These findings support a central assertion of the model, which is that the way we self-disclose in CMC relationships is designed to present ourselves in an exaggeratedly posite light which aids relationship formation.

Relationship are multimodal
Walther (2011) argues that any theory seeking to explain CMC, including the role of self-disclosure, needs to accommodate the fact that our relationships are generally conducted both online and offline through many different media. It is not usually a straightforward matter of ‘either/or’. This is in fact probably the central characteristic of many modern relationships.
What we choose to disclose in our online relationships will inevitably be influenced by our offline interactions, and vice versa

Support for absense of gating
McKenna and Bargh (2000) looked at CMC use by lonely and socially anxious people. They found that such people were able to express their ‘true selves’ more than in FtF situations. Of the romantic relationships that initially formed online, 70% survived more than two years. This is a higher proportion than for relationships formed in the offline world.

Question 44

Parasocial relationship
What is it

Answer 44

They are one sided , unreciprocated relationship, usually with a celebrity on which the fan expend a lot of emotional energy, commitment and time

Question 45

Level of parasocial relationship

Answer 45

McCutcheon and his colleagues identified 3 levels of parasocial relationship

Entertainment social- least intense level of celebrity worship
Celebrities are viewed as sources of entertainment and fuel for social interaction
Giles found that parasocial relationships were a fruitful source of gossip in offices

Intense personal- this is an intermediate level which reflects a greater personal involvement in a parasocial relationship with a celebrity
- obsessive thoughts, intense feelings

Borderline pathological
- is the strongest level of celebrity worship featuring uncontrollable fantasies and extreme behavior
This might include spending a large sum of money on a celebrity related object
Or willing to perform some illegal acts

Question 46

The absorption addiction model

Answer 46

It explains parasocial relationship as total pre occupation in a celebrity life, plus an addictive striving

McCutcheon explains tendency to form parasocial relationship due to deficiencies people have in their own lives
Such as they may have weak sense of self identity and also lack fulfillment in their everyday relationships

Parasocial relationship also them to escape from reality
Someone who initially has an entertainment social orientation to a certain celebrity may be triggered into more intense involve by some personal crisis or stressful life event

Absorption - addiction model has 2 components

• Absorption- seeking fulfillment in celebrity worship motivates the individual to focus their attention on the celebrity , to become pre- occupied in their existence and identity with them

Addiction- the individual need to sustain their commitment to the relationship by feeling a stronger involvement with celebrity
This may lead to more extreme behaviors and delusional thinking
Such as stalking

Question 47

The attachment theory explanation

Answer 47

Various psychologists have suggested that there is a tendency to form parasocial relationsh in adolescence and adulthood because of attachment difficulties in early childhood.

Bowlby’s attachment theory suggested such early difficulties may lead to emotional troubles later in life.

Mary Ainsworth (1979) identified Two attachment types associated with unhealthy emotional development: insecure-resistant and insecure-avoidant.

Insecure-resistant types are most likely to form parasocial relationships as adults.
This is because they need to have unfulfilled needs met, but in a relationship that is not accompanied by the threat of rejection, break-up and disappointment that real-life relationships bring.

Insecure-avoidant types, on the other hand, prefer to avoid the pain and rejection of relationships altogether, whether they be social or parasocial.

Question 48

Parasocial relationship
Evaluation

Answer 48

Support for absorption- addiction model
Maltby et al, looked at female adolescents who reported an intense personal PSR with a female celebrity who body shape they admired
These females tended to have poor body image — often a precursor to the development of eating disorders
Supports the model as it confirms a correlation between level of celebrity worship and poor psychological functioning

Problem with attachment theory
- Lynn McCutcheon et al. (2006) measured attachment types and celebrity-related attitudes in 299 participants. The researchers found that the participants with insecure attachments were no more likely to form parasocial relationships with celebrities than participants with secure attachments.
This finding fails to support a central prediction of the attachment theory, raising serious doubts about its validity.

Methodological issues
- most recent studies in parasocial relationships use self report methods to collect data e.g. online questionnaires
These are subject to a number of effect they can bias the findings= p’s may respond to quite personal items in a way they think they enhances their social status
Senior issue is use of correlational analyses such as strong correlation found between celebrity worship and body image- and concluded that intense personal PSR causes young women to have poor body image
But it could be that young women who already have a poor body image are drawn to an intense personal worship of an admired celebrity
Also could be due to negative life event, stress
This issue of cause and effect could be addressed by longitudinal research = but it’s currently lacking in this field
- this questions validity on addiction -absorption model

Cultural influences
Research studies have identified a tendency for some people to form a parasocial relationship with Harry Potter, an entirely fictional character.
Developing this, Schmid and Klimmt (2011) report that this tendency is not culturally specific.
Using an online questionnaire methodology, they found similar levels of parasocial attachment to Harry Potter in an individualist culture (Germany) and a collectivist culture (Mexico).
- suggest that the need to form parasocial relationship is a universal feature of human behavior