Psychological Assessment Flashcards
1
Q
Standardization
A
Standardization refers to 2 characteristics of a test:
- Standardized when the administration & scoring procedures are clearly defined (fixed).
- Standardized when it has been administered under standard conditions to a representative sample for the purpose of establishing norms.
2
Q
Norm-Referenced Scores
A
Permit comparisons between an examinee’s test performance & the performance of individuals in the norm group.
(Ex: Percentile Ranks & Standard Scores)
3
Q
Criterion-Referenced Scores
A
Permit interpreting an examinee’s test performance in terms of what they can do or knows with regard to a clearly defined content domain or in terms of performance or status on an external criterion.
(aka Domain/Content Referenced Scores)
4
Q
Self-Referenced Scores
A
Provided by ipsative scales & permit intraindividual comparisons (i.e. comparisons of an examinee’s score on one scale with his/her scores on other scales.)
5
Q
Behavioral Assessment
A
Focuses on overt & covert behaviors that occur in specific circumstances & may utilizes various techniques including:
- Behavioral interviews,
- Behavioral observation,
- Cognitive Assessments (thought sampling/protocol analysis) and/or
- Psychophysiological Measures.
6
Q
Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA)
A
(Behavioral assessment) to determining the Fx/purpose of a behavior by ID & altering the antecedents & consequences that are maintaining an undesirable behavior.
Goal is to ID strategies for decreasing/eliminating a target behavior
7
Q
Dynamic Assessment
A
Derived from Vygotsky’s (1962) method for evaluating a child’s mental development & involves an interactive approach & deliberate deviation from standardized testing procedures to obtain additional info. about an examinee &/or determine if he/she would benefit from assistance or instruction.
2 Types:
- Graduated Prompting: Involves giving the examinee a series of verbal promts that are graduated in terms of difficulty level.
- Test-Teach-Retest: Involves following the inital assessment with an intervention designed to modify the examinee’s performance and then re-assessing the examinee.
8
Q
Testing the Limits
A
A type of dynamic assessment, involves providing an examinee with additional cues, suggestions, or feedback & is ordinarily done after standard administration of the test to preserve the applicability of the test’s norms
9
Q
Computer Adaptive Testing (CAT)
A
An advantage of CAT is that it tailors the test to the individual examinee by choosing subsequent items based on his/her previous answers.
Primary advantages are precision & efficiency
10
Q
Actuarial (Statistical) Predictions
A
Actuarial predictions are based on empirically validated relationships btwn test results & target criteria & make use of a multiple regression equation or similar techniques.
Research found that actuarial predicitons alone tend to be more accurate than clinical judgment (predicitions) alone.
11
Q
Clinical Predictions
A
Based on the decision-maker’s intuition, experience, and knowledge. In other words the clinican’s judgement (classifications, diagnoses, & predicitions about behavior).
12
Q
Assessing Members of Culturally Diverse Populations
A
Factors that must be considered include:
- The individuals acculturation
- Racial/ethnic identity
- Language proficency
- Avalibility of appropriate norms
- Cultural equivalence of the content/construct measured by the test
- Avalibility of alternatives that are more appropriate for the client’s background whenever possible.
13
Q
Spearman’s Two Factor Theory
A
Based on his observation that various measures of intelligence correlate to some degree w/each other, Spearman (1927) proposed a general intellectual factor (g) & argued that performance on any cognitive task depends on g plus 1 or more specific factors (s) unique to the task.
14
Q
Horn & Cattell’s Crystallized and Fluid Intelligence
A
Horn and Cattell (1966) proposed that general intelligence can be described in terms of 2 primary types of cognitive abilities:
-
Crystallized Intelligence (Gc): refers to acquired knowledge & skills, & is affected by educational & cultural experiences, & includes reading & numberical skills & factual knowledge.
- Increases till age 60
-
Fluid Intelligence (Gf): enables an individual to solve novel probs. & perceive relations & similarities, & does not depend on specific instruction, is relatively culture-free.
- Peaks in late adolesc. then declines
15
Q
Carroll’s Three-Stratum Theory
A
Carroll (1997) distinguished btwn 3 levels or strata of intelligence.
- Stratum III is g (general intelligence);
- Stratum II consists of 8 broad abilities including:
- Fuid intelligence,
- Crystallized intelligence, and
- General memory & learning; and
- Stratum I consists of specific abilities that are each linked to one of the 2nd stratum abilities.
Ex: Crystallized intelligence is linked to language development, comprehension, spelling ability, and communication ability.
16
Q
McGrew’s Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory of Cognitive Abilities
A
McGrew (1997) combined elements of the Horn-Cattell & Carroll approaches to derive the CHC model, which was developed on the basis of extensive empirical research & serves as the framework for the:
- KABC-II and
- Woodcock-Johnson III.
Distinguishes btwn 10 broad-stratum level abilities & over 70 narrow-straturn abilities that are each linked to one of the broad-stratum abilities.
McGrew acknowledges the existence of g. it is omitted from his theory bc of his belief that it does not contribute to psychoeducational assessment practice.
17
Q
Guilford’s Convergent & Divergent Thinking
A
Guilford’s (1967) structure-of-intellect model distinguishes between:
- Convergent Thinking: Relies on rational, logical reasoning & involves the use of logical judgement & consideration of facts to derive the correct solution to a problem.
- Divergent Thinking: Involves non-logical processes & requires creativity & flexibility to derive multiple solutions.
Theory states that most intelligence tests focus on convergent.
18
Q
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
A
Sternberg’s (1999) triarchic theory defines “successful intelligence” as the ability to adapt, to modify, and choose environments that accomplish one’s goals and the goals of society and proposes that it is composed of 3 abilities:
- Analytical
- Creative
- Practical
Traditional intelligence tests focus on analytical abilities but neglect creative & practical abilities, important contributors to academic & occupational achievement.
19
Q
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
A
(Gardner, 1998) Rejected the traditional view of intelligence as being too narrow, & his theory of multiple intelligences distinguishes btwn 8 types of cognitive ability:
- Linguistic,
- Musical,
- Logical-Mathematical,
- Spatial,
- Bodily-Kinesthetic,
- Interpersonal,
- Intrapersonal, and
- Naturalistic.
Gardner contends that everyone possesses all intelligences to some degree & that the intelligences are not static but can be developed by exposure to appropriate learning experiences.
20
Q
Heredity and Intelligence
A
Studies show correlations between the IQ scores of ppl w/varying degrees of genetic & environmental similarity are used to demonstrate the impact of heredity on intelligence.
The studies have found that, the closer the genetic similarity btwn ppl the higher the correlation coefficent between their IQ test scores.
Ex: The correlation for identical twins reared together, r = .85
Vs.: Identical twins reared apart, r = .67 & Biological siblings reared together, r = .45
21
Q
Flynn Effect
A
Research by Flynn (1987) & others conducted prior to 2000 found that IQ test scores have consistently increased over the past 70 years in the U.S. & other industrialized countries.
This increase is referred to as the Flynn effect, involves a rate of at least 3 IQ points per decade, & is apparently due primarily to increases in fluid intelligence.
Recent research suggests, however, that the Flynn effect has reversed in some countries and, in the U.S., for individuals with IQs of 110 and above.
22
Q
Aging and Crystallized & Fluid Intelligence
A
Horn (1989) proposed that:
- Crystallized intelligence increases until about age 60, while
- Fluid intelligence peaks in late adolescence & thereafter declines.
Increasing age is assoc. w/decreases in speed of info. processing as well as declines in fluid (vs. crystallized) intelligence.
23
Q
Aging and Intelligence - Processing Speed
A
Decline in fluid intelligence in adulthood has been linked to age-related declines in the efficiency of working memeory that, have been attributed to declines in processing speed.
Increasing age is also assoc. w/a decline in speed of information processing & intelligence but, for some adults, declines may be reversed w/relatively simple training & practice.
24
Q
Seattle Longitudinal Study
A
Schaie et al., found that a cross-sectional design is more likely to find early age-related declines in IQ bc it is more vulnerable to the confounding effects of educational & other differences btwn different age groups (“cohort/intergenerational effects”).
It utilized a cross-sequential design (which combines cross-sectional and longitudinal methodologies) & found that, of the 6 primary mental abilities, only perceptual speed declined substantially prior to age 60.
In contrast, numeric ability did not show a significant decline until after age 60, & the other 4 abilities remained fairly stable until about age 70 or 75.
25
Research by K.W. Schaie (1983) on age & intelligence provided support for which of the following theories of intelligence?
A. Guilford's convergent & divergent thinking
B. Spearman's "g" factor
C. Thurstone's primary mental abilites
D. Luria's simultaneous & successive processing
*C. Thurstone's primary mental abilites* - Schaie used a cross-sequential design to examine the effects of age on 6 primary mental abilities:
1. Verbal Ability
2. Inductive Reasoning
3. Verbal Memory
4. Spatial Orientation
5. Numeric Ability
6. Perceptual Speed
The research found that the effects of increasing age differd for each ability, therby confirming *_Thurstone's theory_* that intelligence consists of several broad factors rather than a single "g" factor.
26
Gender-Related Differences in Cognitive Ability
On measures of specific cognitive abilities, most studies have found that:
* *_Females_* do better on some tests of verbal ability
* *_Males_* do better on certain measures of spatial & quantitative skills
* Spatial skills how the largest gender gap
27
Types of Test Bias (Slope & Intercept)
Slope and intercept biases are types of test bias that can invalidate the interpretation of test scores for members of certain grps. Several experts argue that cognitive ability tests are biased against members of certain groups.
* *_Slope Bias:_* occurs when there is differential validity (i.e., when the validity coefficient for a Predictor/test differ for different groups; CAT's). Predictor is more accurate for 1 grp vs the other.
* *_Intercept Bias:_* (unfairness) occurs when the validity coefficients & criterion performance for different grps are the same, but their mean scores on the predictor differ for different groups.
28
Stanford-Binet, 5th Edition (SB5 - Age Range, Cognitive Factors, Routing Subtests)
The SB5 (Stanford-Binet, 5th Edition) is an individually administered intelligence test for individuals ages 2 - 85+ yrs.
Designed to measure:
* General cognitive abilities &
* To assist in psychoeducational evaluation,
* Dx of devel. disabilities & exceptionalities, &
* Forensic, career, neurosych, & early childhood assessment.
Based on a hierarchical model of intelligence that includes "g" (general mental ability) & 5 cognitive factors:
1. Fluid Reasoning (FR),
2. Knowledge (KN),
3. Quantitative Reasoning (QR),
4. Visual-Spatial Processing (VS), and
5. Working Memory (WM).
Administration of the SB5 is tailored to the examinee's level of cognitive functioning through the use of 2 routing subtest:
* Object Series/Matrices (NV - Non-verbal) &
* Vocabulary - (V)
which indicate the appropriate starting point for the remaining subtests based on age or est. ability level.
Admin. of each of the *_functional subtests_* begins at a level slightly below the examinee's ability level as determined by his/her performance on the routing subtests.
The Full Scale IQ & Factor scores have a mean of 100 & standard deviation of 15, & the subtest scores have a mean of 10 and standard deviation of 3.
29
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV) - (Age Range, FSIQ, Indexes)
The WAIS-IV (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, 4th Edition) is an individually administered intelligence test.
*_Ages:_* 16:0 to 90:11 (Hierarchical Model).
A method of assessing intellectual ability & views intelligence as a global ability comprised of numerous interrelated Fx that allow the indiv. "to act purposefully, to think rationally, & to deal effectively with their environment."
Provides a *_Full Scale IQ (FSIQ)_*, scores on four *_Indexes:_*
1. Working Memory Index (WMI)
2. Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI)
3. Processing Speed Index (PSI)
4. Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI), and
* Scores on 10 core & 5 supplemental subtests.
The FSIQ & Index scores have a mean of 100 & SD of 15;
The subtests have a mean of 10 & SD of 3.
The FSIQ should be interpreted w/caution when there is a diff of SD of 1.5 or more bwtween any 2 index scores.
Ex: Samples of indiv. w/mild Alzhiemers dementia, Najor depression, ADHD & TBI obtained the lowest score on the processing speed index.
Object Assembly subtest is a measure of visual-motor speed & coordination & the ability to see part/whole relationships.
30
WAIS-IV Verbal-Performance Discrepancy
One method for interpreting test scores is to consider the discrepancy btwn:
* Verbal IQ
* Performance IQ
A discrepancy of 12 pts. or more is statistically significant but a diff. of 17 pts. is abnormal.
A higher Verbal IQ suggests Right Hemisphere damage, neurosis or psychosis.
A higher Performance IQ may indicate Left Hemisphere damage, educational deficits or sociopathy.
31
WAIS Factor Scores
(ADHD, MCI, Alzheimer's Disease, Major Depression, TBI)
The FSIQ includes scores on
2 Verbal Factors:
* Working Memory (WMI) & Verbal Comprehension (VCI)
2 Performance Factors:
* Processing Speed (PSI) & Perceptual Reasoning (PRI)
Discrepancies in factor index scores correlate w/several conditions. Ex the test manual rpts similar patterns for individuals with:
* *_ADHD or Learning Disabilities_* a higher Verbal Comprehension score vs. Working Memory Score. (VCI\>WMI)
* Aging patients w/Alzheimers Disease Processing Speed - 76.6; Perceptual Reasoning - 85.8; Working Memory - 84.3; Verbal Comprehension - 86.2
32
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV) - (Score Patterns)
The WISC-IV (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th Edition) is an individually administered intelligence test.
*_Ages_*: 6:0 to 16:11.
It provides a Full Scale IQ score, scores on 4 Indexes (Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Reasoning, Working Memory & Processung Speed) & subtests scores.
An examinee's scores can be interpreted by comparing his/her scores to scores patterns obtained by several clinical groups, including children with Autistic Disorder or ADHD.
WPPSI - III for children ages 2:6 to 7:3.
33
WISC-IV score Patterns for ADHD
Highest Subtest Scores:
* Picture Concept
* Picture Completion
* Word Reasoning
* Similarities
Lowest Subtest Scores:
* Cancellation
* Arithmetic
* Coding
34
WISC-IV score Patterns for Autistic Disorder
Highest Subtest Scores:
* Block Design
* Matrix Reasoning
* Picture Concept
Lowest Subtest Scores:
* Comprehension
* Symbol Search
* Coding
35
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC-II)
The KABC-II is a measure of cognitive ability for children.
*_Ages:_* 3:0 through 18:11
Designed to be a "culture-fair" test by minimizing verbal instructions & responses; Emphasis on nonverbal instructions & items.
Interpretation of scores can be based on 1 of 2 models- the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) model of cognitive abilities or Luria's neuropsychological processing model
36
Cognitive Assessment System (CAS)
(Naglierli & Das, ’97) Assesses basic cognitive processes that are central to learning.
It is based on the PASS model of intelligence that distinguishes between the 4 cognitive Fx ID by Luria (1980):
1. Planning,
2. Attention,
3. Simultaneous processing,
4. Sequential processing.
*_Ages:_* 5:0 through 17:11
Provides a Total Scale score, subtest scores, & scores on each cognitive function.
37
Slosson Tests
The Slosson tests include:
* *_The Slosson Intelligence Test Primaiy (SIT-P-l):_* a screening test of intelligence for children ages 2:0 through 7: 1 whose IQs range from 10 to 170+. It was designed as a method for obtaining a quick est. of mental ability & for ID children at risk for educational failure or who require more extensive testing.
* *_The Slosson Intelligence Test - Revised 3rd Edition for Children & Adults (SIT -R3-l):_* A screening test for crystallized (verbal) intelligence. It is appropriate for individuals ages 4:0 through 65:11 whose IQs are between 86 and 164 & may be used to assess individuals with visual impairments.
38
Woodcock-Johnson III
Consists of 2 co-normed batteries:
1. *_The Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJ III COG):_* which assesses general & specific cognitive abilities.
2. *_The Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement (WJ III ACH):_* which measures oral language & academic achievement.
Both tests are appropriate for individuals ages 2:0 to 90+ years and are based on the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of cognitive abilities.
When administered together, they permit assessment of strengths & weaknesses in terms of cognitive and academic abilities and ability-achievement discrepancies.
39
Infant and Preschool Tests
Infant and preschool tests are generally considered valid as screening devices for developmental delays & disabilities; but, when administered to children aged 2 or younger, they have little predictive validity.
Examples include:
* *_Denver Development Screening Test (Denver II)_* - A brief screening device for developmental delays & ages from birth to 6 yrs old.
* *_Bayley Scales of Infant & Toddler Development (Bayley-III)_* - Used to assess the current developmental status of infants and toddlers ages 1 to 42 months.
* *_Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence (FT-II)_* - Used to ID infants w/mental retardation or other gog. impairments. Assesses selective attention to novel stimuli and is appropriate for infants from 3 to 12 months of age.
40
Americans with Disabilities Act
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requires that any test administered to a job applicant or employee with a disability must accurately measure the skills and abilities the test was designed to measure rather than reflect the examinee's disability. It also mandates that employers make reasonable accommodations when testing disabled examinees.
41
Measures for Physical Disabilities
1. *_The Columbia Mental Maturity Scale- 3rd Edition (CMMS):_* A test of general reasoning ability for children ages 3:6 through 9:11. A unique feature is that it does not require verbal responses or fine motor skills. The test consists of 92 cards that contain 3, 4, or 5 drawings; & for each card, the examinee is required to indicate the drawing that does not belong w/the others. CMMS was originally developed for children with cerebral palsy, it is also useful for children with brain damage, mental retardation, speech impairments, hearing loss, or limited English proficiency.
2. *_Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test- 4th Edition (PPVT-4)_*
3. *_Haptic Intelligence Scale for the Adult Blind:_* For indiv. ages 16:0 & older who are blind or partially sighted. It makes use of tactile stimuli & includes 6 subtests: Digit Symbol, Object Assembly, Block Design, Object Completion, Pattern Board, and Bead Arithmetic.
4. *_Hiskey-Nebraska Test of Learning Aptitude:_* A measure of learning ability for children ages 3:0 to 17:6 who have hearing or language impairments. It can be administered verbally or in pantomime & consists of 12 nonverbal subtests that assess a broad range of intellectual abilities (e.g., Picture Identification, Spatial Reasoning, Memory for Color).
42
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test- 4th Edition (PPVT-4)
The PPVT-4 is a measure of receptive vocabulary & provides an est. of non-verbal intelligence.
*_Ages:_* 2:6 to 90+ years
For people w/a motor or speech impairment, *_orthopedic disabilities_* & can be administered to any examinee who is able to hear the stimulus word, see the drawings on the cards, and in some way communicate a response
43
Culture Fair Tests
1. *_Leiter International Performance Scale-Revised (Leiter-R)_*: Designed as a culture-fair measure of cognitive abilities.
2. *_Raven's Progressive Matrices:_* Nonverbal measure of gen. intelligence (g)
44
Leiter International Performance Scale-Revised (Leiter-R)
The Leiter-R was designed as a culture-fair, non-verbal measure of cognitive abilities; alt. to Stanford Binet.
*_Ages:_* 2:0 to 20:11
Test req. examinee's to match a set of response cards to corresponding illustrations on an easel.
Because it can be administered w/out verbal instructions & does not require verbal or written responses, it is also *useful for individuals who have a language or hearing impairment*
45
Raven's Progressive Matrices
A nonverbal measure of general intelligence (g) & is considered useful as a multicultural test bc it is relatively independent of the effects of specific education & cultural learning.
The tests require an examinee to solve probs. involving abstract figures & designs by indicating which of several alt. complete a given matrix.
There are several versions including:
* *_The Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM):_* Most common - Includes 60 matrices that require the examinee to choose the missing section from 6 alternatives; appropriate for indiv. ages 6:0 & older
* *_Colored Progressive Matrices (CPM):_* An easier & shorter version of the test & is designed for examinees ages 5:0 to 11:0, older adults, & indiv. w/mental/physical impairments.
* *_Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM)_*: is for adolescents & adults who have above-average intelligence.
It can also be administered to hearing-impaired examinees because it's instructions can be pantomimed, they can be used w/examinees who are hearing-impaired, non-English speaking or who have aphasia or a physical disability.
46
Group Intelligence Tests for School and Industry
1. *_Kuhlmann-Anderson Test – 8th Edition:_* A multilevel battery for children in grades K thru 12 & evaluates school learning ability. An examinees performance is reported in terms of Verbal, Quantitative, & Total Scores. The test assesses both verbal & nonverbal abilities, content less dependent on language than other individual and group intelligence tests.
2. *_Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT):_* Measures examinees reasoning abilities in 3 areas that are linked to academic success - verbal, quantitative & nonverbal. Appropriate for students in grades K thru 12 & is used to predict school grades & determine a student's eligibility for placement in a gifted/talented program.
3. *_Wonderlic Tests (WPT-R):_* A 12-minute test of cognitive ability for adults & includes several forms that contain 50 verbal, numerical, & spatial items. It is used primarily by employers to assist w/hiring decisions. The Wonderlic Basic Skills Test (WEST) is a 40-minute test that assesses job-related verbal & math skills & is used by educational institutions & employers to evaluate an indivs. employability for an entry-level career position.
47
Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM)
Involves periodic assessment of school-aged children w/brief standardized & validated measures of basic academic skills that reflect the current school curriculum for the purposes of evaluating instructional effectiveness & making instructional decisions
48
Performance-Based Assessment (PBA)
aka authentic assess, & involves “observing & judging a pupil's skill in actually carrying out a physical activity (e.g., giving a speech) or producing a product (e.g., building a birdhouse)".
Proponents argue that it provides an egalitarian method of evaluation &, consequently, is useful for assessing students from culturally & linguistically diverse groups.
Limitation is that it might reflect, to some degree, prior knowledge & experience rather than what was learned in the current class.
49
Tests for Identifying Learning Disabilities
1. *_Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities, 3rd Edition (ITPA-3):_* Is appropriate for indiv. ages 5:0 to 12:11. It was designed to evaluate a child's strengths & weaknesses in terms of linguistic abilities, assist in the Dx of dyslexia & learning disabilities/problems related to phonological coding, and track a child's progress as the result of an intervention.
2. *_Wide-Range Achievement Test (WRAT4):_* Designed for indiv. ages 5:0 to 94:11 as a rapid screening device for assess. the reading, spelling, & math skills needed for effective communication & learning. It consists of 4 subtests (Sentence Completion, Word Reading, Spelling, and Math Computation) & is used to assist in the Dx of learning disabilities, identify appropriate instructional strategies, and monitor academic progress over time.
3. *_Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT-III):_* For indiv. ages 4:0 through 50:11 & assesses the 8 areas of achievement identified by IDEA legislation as important for identifying learning disabilities. The score report generated by Scoring Assistant software provides specific goals and objectives that correspond to the examinees problem areas and are designed to assist with identifying individualized education program (IEP) goals and intervention strategies.
50
Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities, 3rd Edition (ITPA-3)
The ITPA-3 was designed to evaluate a child's strengths and weaknesses in terms of linguistic abilities, assist in the diagnosis of dyslexia and learning diasabilities/problems related to phonological coding, and track a child's progress as the result of an intervention.
*_Ages:_* 5:0 to 12:11
51
Differential Validity
The term differential validity has two meanings:
* In the context of multiaptitude batteries, differential validity is desirable, & a battery lacks differential validity when each test or subject has similar validity coefficients for each criterion group or category.
* In the context of job selection, differential validity is undesirable and occurs when a predictor has different validity coefficients for different groups of individuals (e.g., men and women).
* One cause of adverse impact
52
Psychomotor Tests
Tests designed to assess speed, coordination, & other motor responses.
These tests generally have low predictive validity coefficients (.20) due, in part, to their susceptibility to practice effects & their high degree of specificity.
Factor analyses have shown that there is no underlying “general psychomotor factor" & that the different psychomotor skills are relatively independent
Ex: of psychomotor tests include the Purdue Pegboard and the Crawford Small Parts Dexterity Test.
53
Strong Interest Inventory (SII)
The Sll is approp. for indivs aged 15 & older.
Must be computer scored, & results are provided in a personalized Profile that presents a brief explanation of the examinees scores & an Interpretive Rpt that provides addl. Info. to help the examinee explore career options.
The current version of the Sll yields scores on the following scales (Donnay, Thompson, Morris, & Schaubhut, 2004):
* *_General Occupational Themes (GOT):_* provides info. on Holland's 6 occupational themes — realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, & conventional.
* *_Basic Interest Scales (BIS):_* Scores are provided on 30 BlSs that are related to the GOTs & include Athletics, Performing Arts, Research, Healthca.re Services, Teaching, Education, & Entrepreneurship.
* *_Occupational Scales (OS):_* These scales indicate the degree to which the examinee‘s interests are similar to those of satisfied workers of the same gender in 122 diverse occupations including Accountant, Corporate Trainer. Software Developer, Psychologist, Chef, and Translator.
* *_Personal Styles Scales (PSS):_* Scores are provided on 5 PSSs — Work Style, Learning Environment, Leadership Style, Risk Taking, & Team Orientation.
* *_Administrative Indices:_* The Administrative Indices provide info. on the types & consistency of responses made by an examinee.
54
Kuder Occupational Interest Inventory (KOIS)
Designed for high school juniors & seniors, college students, & adults.
It was devel. on the basis of empirical criterion keying but, unlike the Strong tests, did not include a general reference grp. Instead, items selected for inclusion were those that distinguished btwn different occupational grps.
The KOIS provides scores on 4 scales:
* *_Occupational Scales:_* Scores on 109 Occupational Scales (65 male and 44 female) are rptd in terms of lambda coefficients that *indicate the strength of the relationship btwn the examinee‘s interests & those of satisfied workers in different occupations.* A coefficient of less than 45 indicates a dissimilarity of interests. The Occupational Scales of the KOIS are broader in terms of occupation types than those included in the SII.
* *_College Major Scales:_* Scores are provided for 40 college majors (22 for males and 18 for females).
* *_Vocational Interest Estimates (VIE's):_* The VIE's provide an overview of an examinees interests in ten broad areas that are similar to Holland's occupational themes.
* *_Dependability Indices:_* The Dependability Indices are used to check the validity of an examinee‘s responses.
55
Self-Directed Search (SDS) - RIASEC
Holland classified occupations & occupational interests into 6 themes, which he believed reflect basic personality characteristics.
The relationship btwn these themes is conceptualized in terms of a hexagon w/themes located closer to one another being more similar. Starting in the upper left of the hexagon, the themes are (RIASEC):
* *_Realistic:_* Pref. are technical, physical, mechanical, & outdoor activities. Occupations include engineer, mechanic, construction worker, electrician, farmer, police officer & pilot.
* *_Investigative:_* Pref. are scientific, mathematical, analytical, & scholarly activities. Occupations include biologist, veterinarian, mathematician, university professor, and medical technician.
* *_Artistic:_* Pref. music, art, writing, drama. & other creative activities. Occupations include artist, actor, musician, writer, interior designer, and industrial designer.
* *_Social:_* Pref. activities that involve working w/& helping others. Occupations include teacher, psychologist, social worker, nurse, minister, & personnel manager.
* *_Enterprising:_* Pref. are activities that involve competition, management, sales, & public speaking. Occupations include sales manager, realtor, stockbroker, financial planner & buyer.
* *_Conventional:_* Pref. are structured, unambiguous activities that involve organizing data, attending to detail, & following through on others instructions. Occupations include accountant, administrative assistant, actuary, technical writer, paralegal, and banker.
These themes are measured by the Self-Directed Search (SDS).
Holland believed that several factors are important when interpreting and examinee's scores on the SDS including consistency, which refers to the degree of distinctivness of an examinee's measured interests.
56
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2)
For indiv. aged 18 & older & requires a reading level of at least 5th to 8th grade level (publisher lists 5th grade as the min. reading level).
The MMPI-2's provides scores on 10 clinical scales & 4 validity scales.
Scores on the MMPI-2 are reported as T-scores that have a mean of 50 and standard deviation of 10, and a T-score of 65 or higher considered clinically significant.
Scores are the clinical scales are commonly interpreted through profile analysis, which involves considering the examinee's two or three highest scale scores.
57
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) - Validity Scales
The 4 validity scales are designed to assess test-taking attitudes & determine if an examinee's results are valid & include:
1. *_Lie (L)_* = A high score on the L Scale indicates an attempt to present oneself in a *_Favorable Light._*
2. *_Frequency_* *_(F)_* = Answer in typical or deviant manner.
* High F score = suggests response carelessness, significant pathology, or an attempt to *_"Fake Bad"_*
* Low F Score = Fake Good
3. *_Correction (K)_* = Degree to which an indiv. describes self in overly positive terms.
* High K score = indicates defensiveness or an attempt to *_"Fake Good."_*
* Low K score = Lack of insight, disorientation or "Fake Bad"
4. *_Cannot Say (?)_* = A high score indicates difficulty reading. indecisive, distracted, rebellious or defensive.
* (Fake Bad = High F or Very Low K)
* (Fake Good = Low F or High K)
When scoring is treated as a suppressor variable & used as a correction factor for some of the clinical scales.
Scores are reported as T-scores (raw scores on each scale converted to T-scores) that have a:
* Mean of 50 &
* Standard deviation (SD) of 10
A T-score of 65 or higher considered clinically significant.
Interpretation begins w/eval. validity of the profile by considering the examinees scores on the test‘s validity scales.
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Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) - 2 & 3 Point Codes
**_Clinical Scale 2 Point Codes:_**
* *_1 (Hs) /2 (D): Depression, worry, pessimism, Hypochondriasis_*
* *1: Hypochondriasis (Hs)* - Preoccupation w/physical Sx's
* *2: Depression (D)* - Depression. hoplesness, dissatisfaction w/self.
* *_2 (D)/9 (Ma): Aggitated depression, Bi-Polar D/O, Psychosomatic complaints_*
* *2: Depression (D)* - Depression. hoplesness, dissatisfaction w/self.
* *9: Hypomania (Ma)* - Unstable Mood, impulsivity, grandiosity, flight of ideas
* *_4 (Pd)/9 (Ma): Implusive, Narcissistic, Anti-social behavior, Substance Abuse_*
* *4: Psychopathic Deviant (Pd)* - Antisocial behaviors, rebelliousness, social alienation
* *9: Hypomania (Ma)* - Unstable Mood, impulsivity, grandiosity, flight of ideas
**_Validity Scale 3 Point Codes:_**
*_Neurotic Triad (Conversion V):_*
High 1 (L) & 3 (K), Low 2 (F) - Suggests an attempt to present oneself in a favorable light (to “fake good") & has been found to be a common pattern for child custody litigants, especially those exhibiting “parental alienation syndrome“ (e.g., Siegel & Langford, 1998); Somatization of psychological problems, lack of insight & chronic pain (organic)
*_Paranaoid Valley (Psychotic V):_*
High 6 (Pa) & 8 (Sc), Low 7 (Pt)- Delusions, Hallucinations & Disordered thoughts
Others:
* *_Extremely elevated F(2) scale score with a high value on the F-K index (F minus K greater than +9)_* suggests Sx exaggeration (attempt to “fake bad") & has been linked to malingering. Malingering is suggested when L & K Scale scores are around 50, the F Scale score is slightly elevated, & the clinical score profile is “saw-toothed“ (high & low scores on alternate scales).
* *_A very elevated F Scale score and high scores (T \> 65)_* on most or all of the clinical scales suggests random responding to test items
* *_When an examinee answers "true" to all items_*, L & K Scale scores are below 50 & the F Scale score & clinical scale scores on the right side of the profile (Scales 6 thru 9) are very elevated. Conversely, when an examinee answers "false" to all items, scores on all three validity scales & clinical scale scores on the left side of the profile (Scales 1 thru 5) are elevated.
*
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16 Personality Factor Questionnaire
Cattell's 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF) was constructed on the basis of factor analysis, which identified 16 primary personality traits (e.g., reserved versus warm-hearted, trusting versus suspicious).
One method for interpreting the 16 PF is to compare the examinees profile w/the profiles associated with specific groups (e.g., delinquents, neurotics, workers in various occupations).
The most recent version of the test (5th Edition) contains 185 multiple-choice items and provides scores on 16 primary scales, 5 global scales, and three response bias (validity) scales.
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Big Five Personality Traits
The initial identification of the personality traits that make up the "Big Five": (OCEAN)
1. **O**penness to experience
2. **C**onscientiousness,
3.
* *E**xtraversion,
4. **A**greeableness,
5. **N**euroticism
Utilized an atheoretical lexical approach that entailed identifying personality characteristics listed in the dictionary & then using factor analysis to identify the core traits (factors)
Research confirmed that the 5-factor model of personality is replicable across cultures, although some studies have failed to replicate the openness to experience factor in some Asian & other non-Western countries (e.g., Cheung et al., 2001).
Ex: Their comparison of the Big 5 traits in 10 world regions, Schmitt et al. (2007) found that levels of Extraversion, Agreeableness, & Openness were lowest in East Asian nations, while levels of Agreeableness & Conscientiousness were highest in African nations.
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Million Clinical Multiaxial Inventory – III
Used to assist in diagnosing DSM Axis I & Axis II disorders.
It provides scores on 14 Personality Disorder Scales, 10 Clinical Syndrome Scales (which represent the more prevalent Axis I disorders), 5 Correction Scales that are used to detect distortions in the examinee‘s responses, and 42 Grossman Personality Facet Scales that can be used to help interpret elevations on the Personality Disorder Scales.
The MCMI-III is appropriate for individuals ages 18 and older, while the Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory (MACI) is for examines ages 13:0 to 19:11.
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Rorschach Inkblot Test (Administration, Scoring Categories, Interpretation)
The Rorschach is a projective personality test that presents the examinee with 10 inkblots & is based on the premise that an examinee's responses to the inkblots reflect his/her underlying personality, conflicts, etc.
Administration usually entails 2 phases:
1. *_Free association:_* The examiner presents the 10 cards in a prescribed order, asks the examinee to describe what he/she sees, & keeps a verbatim record of the examinee‘s responses, remarks, emotional expression, etc.
2. *_Inquiry:_* The examiner actively questions the examinee about the features of the inkblot that determined his/her responses in order to facilitate scoring.
Most scoring systems involve looking at the following categories:
* *_Location:_* Where in the inkblot the examinee's perception is located (i.e., the whole blot, a common detail, or an unusual detail).
* *_Determinants:_* What in the inkblot determined the examinee’s response (i.e., the inkblot's form, movement, color, &/or shading).
* *_Form quality: _*How similar the examinee‘s perception is to the actual shape of the inkblot.
* *_Content:_* The category the perception falls into (human, animal, or nature).
* *_Popularity/Frequency of Occurrence:_* How often a certain inkblot or portion of an inkblot elicits a particular response.
Interpretation involves considering the number and ratio of responses in each category.
*_Interpretation:_*
* Overuse of white space = Oppositional tendencies
* Many color responses = Emotionality & Impulsivity
* Large # of whole responses = Integrated organized thinking
* *Confabulation:* Overgeneralizing a part of the inkblot to the whole may suggest brain damage, emotional disturbance or mental retardation.
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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Based on Murray's theory of needs & the test consists of 20 cards, presents the examinee with 19 cards containing vague black-and-white pictures that include 1 or more human figures & one blank card, with a subset of 8 to 12 cards usually being administered to an examinee.
The examinee is asked to make up a story about each picture & his/her responses are scored and interpreted in terms of several factors including the story's "hero," the intensity, frequency, and duration of needs, environmental press, thema, and outcomes expressed in each story.
Studies suggest that the TAT has little utility for assigning specific Dx’s but may be useful for gross diagnostic distinctions (e.g., schizophrenia vs neurosis) & as a “wide-band" measure of personality that provides info. on such factors as cognitive style, emotional reactivity, and defensive structure.
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The Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery (H-R)
Used to detect brain damage & determine its severity & possible location in indiv. 15 & older.
The core tests included in the H-R were found to differentiate btwn normal controls & indiv. w/brain damage & assess a variety of Fx's including memory, concentration, abstract reasoning, language, visual-motor integration, & manual dexterity.
These tests are often admin. in conjunction w/other measures of specific Fxs, the WAIS or WISC, & the MMPI.
It produces a Halstead Impairment Index that ranges from 0 to 1.0, w/higher scores indicating greater impairment. A score of 0 to 0.2 suggesting normal fx, 0.3 to 0.4 mild impairment, 0.5 to 0.7 moderate impairment, & 0.8 to 1.O severe impairment. Several versions of the H-R are available including abbreviated versions & versions for younger & older children.
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Bender-Gestalt II
Used as a measure of visual-motor integration that is also used as a screening tool for neuropsychological impairment.
It includes 16 stimulus cards consisting of geometric figures that the examinees 1st copies & then draws from memory.
→The Global Scoring System entails evaluating the overall quality of an examinees designs during both phases of administration using a rating scale that ranges from 0 (no resemblance) to 4 (nearly perfect).
→This is considered a valid screening device for brain damage but, to avoid false negatives, should be used in conjunction w/other sources of info.
There is evidence it is useful for assess school readiness in 1st graders, predicting academic achievement, & ID emotional probs & learning disabilities.
Not considered accurate for ID personality characteristics or for making psychiatric Dxs.
Res. on the prev. version of the Bender-Gestalt indicated that perf. is affected by education but not by drawing ability & that, up to age 10 scores correlate with intelligence. (After 10, "normals" obtain perfect or near perfect scores.)
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Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST)
Used to assess the ability to form abstract concepts & shift cognitive strategies in response to feedback.
*_Ages:_* 6:6 to 80:11
It is sensitive to frontal lobe damage, & impaired performance has been linked to alcoholism, autism, schizophrenia, depression, & malingering.
It consists of 4 stimulus cards & 64 response cards that contain 1 to 4 symbols (triangle, star, cross, circle) in 1 of 4 colors.
The examinee is asked to sort the response cards under the 4 stimulus cards using a sorting strategy that is not disclosed to him/her; & the examinee is given feedback by the examiner about whether his/her strategy is "right" or "wrong."
After 10 correct sorts, the examiner changes the sorting strategy w/out warning the examinee.
The examinees responses are scored in terms of trials required to ID the correct sorting strategy.
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Stroop Color-Word Association
Assess the degree to which an examinee can suppress a prepotent (habitual) response in favor of an unusual one and measures cognitive flexibility, selective attention, and response inhibition.
It is sensitive to frontal lobe damage, and poor performance has been associated with ADHD, mania, depression, and schizophrenia.
The test presents the examinee w/a list of color names that are printed in ink colors that differ from the name (e.g., the name red might be printed in blue ink), and the examinee is asked to go through the list and say the ink color rather than read the color name, which is the prepotent response.
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Mini Mental State Exam (MMSE)
A screening test for cognitive impairment for older adults & assesses 6 aspects of cognitive functioning:
1. orientation,
2. registration (immediate recall),
3. attention and calculation,
4. delayed recall,
5. language, and
6. visual construction.
The maximum score is 30, and a score of 23 or 24 is ordinarily used as a cutoff, with scores below the cutoff indicating cognitive impairment.
It was devel.as a screening test for cognitive impairment for older adults; yet it is sometimes used as a Dx tool for dementia, it was not devel. for that purpose & should not be used as a substitute for a thorough clinical assessment.
Since MMSE relies heavily on verbal responses, reading, & writing, it must be used with caution w/indiv. who have limited English skills, a communication D/O, or a visual or hearing impairment.
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Glasgow Coma Scale
Used to assess level of consciousness following brain injury & involves rating the patient in terms of three responses- visual response (eye opening), best motor response, and best verbal response.
A patient’s score can range from 3 to 15, with a lower score indicating more severe brain injury and a score of 3 to 8 indicating an unconscious state.
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Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II)
The BDI-II contains 21 items that address the mood, cognitive, behavioral, & physical aspects of depression.
The examinee rates each item in terms of severity on a 4-point scale that ranges from 0 (minimal) to 3 (severe). The following score guidelines are often used:
* 0 to 13= minimal depression;
* 14 to 19= mild depression;
* 20 to 28= moderate depression; and
* 29 to 63= Severe depression.
Of the signs of depression hopelessness is considered to be one of the best predictors of suicide risk.
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Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
AKA PL 94-142
(Began as PL 94-142 -Education of the Handicapped Act & has been revised several times). IDEA requires that:
1. all disabled people from infancy to 21 years of age must be evaluated by a team of specialists to determine their specific needs;
2. an Individualized Educational Program (IEP) must be developed for each disabled child enrolled in public education system that provides education for the student in the "least restrictive environment" and that has been approved by the child's parents; and
3. while reliable, valid, and nondiscriminatory psychological tests can be used, assignment to special education classes cannot be made on the basis of IQ tests only.
Also relevant to identifying children as mentally retarded is the 1979 case:
Larry P. v. Riles
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Larry P. v. Riles
The case of Larry P. was brought by plaintiffs on behalf of African American children who were disproportionately enrolled in special education classes (EMR) in the San Francisco school system. Based primarily on the testimony of experts, the judge handed down the opinion that "IQ tests are racially and culturally biased, [and] have a discriminatory impact on Black children" and enjoined San Francisco public schools from using them to place Black children in special education classes (EMR).
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Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, 2nd Edition (Vineland-II)
Used to evaluate personal & social skills of children and adults with Mental Retardation, Autism Spectrum Disorders, ADHD, brain injury, or dementia and to assist in the development of educational and treatment plans along w/ an IQ test.
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Wonderlic Personnel Test - Revised (WPT-R)
12 min. test of mental (cog.) abilities for adults & includes several forms that contain 50 verbal, numerical & spatial items.
Used orimarily by employers to assist w/hiring decisions.
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Actuarial Versus Clinical Predictions
*_Actuarial Predictions:_* Based on empirically-validated relationships btwn test results & target criteria & make use of regression equation, multiple regression equation or similar technique.
*_Clinical Predictions:_* Based on decision-makers intuition, experience, & knowledge.
Studies comparing the 2 methods have generally found that the actuarial methods alone is more accurate than clinical judgement alon & abut equally accurate as a combo of actuarial & clinical methods.
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Domain-Referenced Testing
Involves scoring an examinee's test perf. in terms of how much s/he has mastered the domain being assessed.
AKA content & criterion-referenced testing.
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A psychologist would most likely administer the Vineland-II when:
A. she is assessing an individual for Intellectual Disability.
B. she is assessing an individual for a Pervasive Developmental Disorder.
C. she wants to evaluate the cognitive skills of an individual with traumatic brain injury.
D. she wants to assess the cognitive skills of an individual who has limited English proficiency.
A. she is assessing an individual for Intellectual Disability - Correct
The Vineland Adaptive Behavioral Scales, Second Edition (Vineland-II) is a measure of adaptive behavior. The Vineland-II provides a measure of personal and social skills needed for everyday living and is used to assist in the diagnosis of Intellectual Disability.
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