Psychobiology Flashcards
1
Q
Central Nervous System (CNS)
A
the division of nervous system located in the skull and spine (interprets information)
2
Q
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
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nervous system located outside the skull and spine (receives and transmits information)
3
Q
What are the two divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?
A
- Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
- Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
4
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Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
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part of the PNS that interacts with the external environment using efferent and afferent nerves
5
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Nerves
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collections of axons outside of the CNS
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Tract
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collections of axons inside the CNS
7
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Nucleus
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collection of cell bodies inside CNS and part of an axon
8
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Ganglias
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collection of cell bodies outside of the CNS
9
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anterior singulet
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the base for nuero-navigation
10
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SNS Purpose
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Somatic division of PNS is comprised by nerves that control muscle action and that carry sensory information back to the CNS and contains cranial nerves and spinal nerves
11
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Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
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part of the PNS that regulates the body’s internal environment. uses afferent and efferent nerves to send and receive signals to and from internal organs. also contains two types of nerves, sympathetic and parasympathetic.
12
Q
Efferent nerves
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sends signals from the CNS (exits) (motor)
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Afferent nerves
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sends signals to the CNS (approach) (sensory)
14
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meninges
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layers that protect the brain
15
Q
name meninges layers
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dura mater (outer)
arachnoid (middle)
pia mater (inside)
16
Q
sympathetic nerves
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fight or flight
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parasympathetic
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normal functioning
18
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neuraxis
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an imaginary line drawn through the spinal cord up to the front of the brain
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anterior/rostral (neuraxis)
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toward the head
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posterior/caudal (neuraxis)
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toward the tail
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ventral/inferior (neuraxis)
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toward the belly
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dorsal/superior (neuraxis)
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toward the back
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ipsilateral
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same side of brain
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contralateral
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opposite side of brain
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SNS nerve types
cranial nerves 12
spinal nerves 31
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cranial nerves
olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, abducens, facial, vestibular, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory, hypoglossal
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spinal nerve sections
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccyx/coccygeal
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dermatomes
area of skin that is supplied by (mostly) a single nerve
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ventricles in the brain
structures that produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and transport it around the cranial cavity
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choroid plexus
lines the walls of ventricles and manufactures CSF
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Purpose of Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
- Cushioning effect and lubrication for the brain and spinal cord
- helps to maintain pressure within cranium
- transports metabolic waste away from brain and spinal-cord tissue into the bloodstream
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the blood-brain barrier
border of endothelial cells that prevents toxins or pathogens entering the CSF from blood.
also filters in nutrients and filters out harmful compounds.
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how is the nervous system developed?
develops from a layer of epidermal cells in the embryo called the neural plate, which folds over to form the neural tube.
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Hydrocephalus
a build up of CSF in cranial ventricles throughout the brain
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nuerons
cells that are specialised for the reception, conducting and transmission of electrochemical signals
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types of neuroglia
oligodendroglia (oligodendrocytes)
astroglia (astrocytes)
microglia
ependymal cells
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oligodendroglia (oligodendrocytes)
form myelin sheaths
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astroglia (astrocytes)
support neurons, absorb debris, form part of the brain-blood barrier
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Microglia
part of the CNS immune system, respond to injury or disease
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medial
towards the midline
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lateral
away from the midline
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sagittal plane
brain cut vertically from front to back
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frontal plane
brain cut vertically front left to right
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cross section
any right angle cut to a long section or narrow path such as the spinal cord
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grey matter
composed of cell bodies and unmyelinated interneurons
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white matter
composed of myelinated axons
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spinal nerves
pairs of nerves attached to the 31 sections of the spine
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dorsal root axons are only
afferent
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ventral root axons are only
efferent
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encephalon
in the brain
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5 divisions of the brain
telencephalon (cerebral hemispheres)
diencephalon
mesencephalon (midbrain)
metencephalon
myelencephalon (medulla)
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the brain stem consists of which brain divisions
diencephalon
mesencephalon
metencephalon
myelencephalon
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Olfactory function
smell
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optic function
vision
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oculomotor function
eye movement, pupillary constriction, sensory signals from certain eye muscles
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trochlear
eye movement, sensory signals from certain eye muscles
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trigeminal
facial sensations, chewing
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abducens
eye movement, sensory signals from certain eye muscles
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facial
taste from anterior 2/3 of tongue, expression, tears, salivation
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vestibular
audition, organs of balance in the inner ear
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glossopharyngeal
taste from posterior third of tongue, salivation, swallowing
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vagus
sensation from abdominal and thoracic regions, muscles of throat
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accessory
movement of shoulders, neck and head , sensory signals from muscles of the neck
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hypoglossal
tongue movement, sensory signals from tongue muscles
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medulla
(myelencephalon) ANS responses, such as heart rate, breathing, blood vessel dilation, digestion, sneezing, swallowing and vomiting
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reticular formation
(myelencephalon) has projections to the thalamus and cerebral cortex that allow it to exert some control over which sensory signals reach the cerebrum and come to our conscious attention. It plays a central role in states of consciousness like alertness and sleep
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Cerebellum
(metencephalon) coordinates voluntary movements such as posture, balance, coordination, and speech, resulting in smooth and balanced muscular activity. Some research such role in higher order cognition ("cerebellum instructs frontal systems how to think ahead by providing anticipatory control mechanisms").
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Pons
(metencephalon) It is involved in the control of breathing, regulation of cranial nerves, and relays motor and sensory information.
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What is Neuropsychology?
Relationship between brain and psychological functions
- Brain structure and function
- psychological function=behaviour
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Cognitive neuropsychology?
-attempts to infer the normal structure and function of the brain from the study of damage to the nervous system
- info-processing approach
- draws on cognitive and clinical neuropsychology
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clinical neuropsychology methods
- case studies
- Syndromes approach
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Brain structure: fine and gross
- single cells (neurons) building blocks
- nuerons groups together to form brain structure and pathways
- each neuron contains a cell body that holds the nuclei and an axon which is covered in fatty tissue (myelin)
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Brain Chemistry
- neurotransmitters are chemicals released by neurons to excite or inhibit behaviour (manufactured in the cell body, and released into the synapse at the terminal buttons of the axon)
- Psychoactive drugs mimic the action of neurotransmitters
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blood vessels
- arterial (bring oxygenated blood in) and venous (take oxygenated blood out)
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Electrophysiology
- Neuron: action potential - electrochemical action of adjacent neurons acting upon one another to cause the secretion or cessation of the release of neurotransmitters
- neurotransmitter picked up from adjacent neuron at the cell body and when threshold is reached signal passed daown axon to the terminal buttons where neurotransmitter is released to next axon - ongoing chain reaction until inhibited
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Grey matter
- cell bodies group together to form structures (e.g. cortex)
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white matter
- axons group together to form pathways that link structures (carrying the electrochemical message)
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X-ray
- depending upon the density of the tissue, it is absorbed to different degrees
- the 'left over' x-rays can be projected onto a photographic plate to produce a 2D image of the object
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Contrast x-ray
angiography: radio-opaque dye injected into blood vessels
- used to visualize blood vessels
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computerised axial tomography (CAT/CT)
- narrow x-ray beam passed through at man y angles to provide detailed pictures of slices of the brain
- multiple brain slices combined by a computer to produce a 3D picture of brain structures which can be viewed in any orientation
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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI scan)
- measures change in magnetice properties of protons (in hydrogen nuclei) after a magnetic field is passed thru head
- yields a similar 3D pic to CT, with better resolution
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Electroencephalography (EEG) 1929
- application of metal macroelectrodes to scalp
(detects small changes in electrical potential indicating the patterns of activity of neurons, maps "brainwaves"
- clinical use in diagnosis of epilepsy, sleep disorders, evaluating coma or brain death
- good temporal (when activity is happening) but poor spatial/localising (where activity is happening)
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Event relatied potentials (ERPs) or Evoked potentials (EPs)
- large slow potentials that are seen after a sensory stimulus or cognitive operation
- Visualised using EEG, but this time a stimulus is presented or withdrawn to deliberately precipitate action potentials
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ERP/EP clinical use in detecting diseases affecting sensory pathways
- visual evoked responses
- somatosensory evoked responses
- brainstem auditory evoked responses
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Positron emission topography (PET scan)
- reflects brain activity not structure
- measures blood flow: radioactively labelled water (Oxygen 15) emits positrons as it decays
- glucose metabolism: measured via injection of 2,4 deoxyglucose which emits positrons
- resting state or functional snacs possible, and can be compared
(differences between the two show specific areas associated with specific functions)
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Functional MRI (FMRI)
- reflects brain activity not structure (as in MRI)
- fMRI detects activity of neurons by measuring the magnetic field effects of increased haemoglobin (oxygen carriers) concentration in blood
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Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)
- imaging of white matter tracts within brain= tractography
- able to explore connections between distant brain regions
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Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS)
- measure metabolites/neurochemicals in brain
- elevations or reductions indicative of cell death or dysfunction
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Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
- method for non-invasively modulating (changing) brain activity
(magnetic pulses directed at specific regions)
- Possible to facilitate or disrupt brain activity
(single pulse TMS, repetitive TMS (RTMS))
- research use for confirmation of lesion studies
- therapeutic uses of TMS (is sometimes used to treat depression that hac been resistant to other forms of treatment
90
neuropsychological assessment
- a behavioural investigation of braing functioning (interviews and psych assessment tools
- importance of person in context (family history, family/relationship history, presenting problem)
- formal assessment of: sensori-motor function, cognitive function, social/emotional function
- integration of quantitative and qualitative info leads to a neuropsychological formulation
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psychopathology
- literally "disease of the mind
- Disturbance
- psychological disorder
- psychological dysfunction
- scientific study of mental disorders and behaviours (what is typical or healthy)
-underlying cause, mechanisms, and patterns
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International Classification of Diseases
- made by the WHO
- produced by a global health agency in comparison to DSM produced by AMerica
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DSM definition of mental disorder
-syndrome characterised by clinically significant disturbance in cognition, emotion regulation or behaviour
- reflects a dysfunction in the psychological biological, or developmental processes underlying mental functioning.
- usually associated with sig distress or impairment (disability) in social, occupational or other important activities.
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What is not a mental disorder?
- expectable, culturally approved response to a stressor or loss
- socially deviant behaviour (unless deviance or conflict results from a dysfunction in the individual)
- conflicts between individual and society (similar to above)
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Etiology
- the causes or origins of a disorder
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Epidemiology
- the scientific study of the frequency and distribution of disorders within a population
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mortality
- occurrence of death within a population or groups
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Co-morbidity
- problems or presenting symptoms meet the criteria for more than one diagnosis
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burden of disease
- measured in disability adjusted life years (DALY)= years of life lost due to premature mortality (fatal burden) and years of healthy life lost due to poor health (Non-fatal burder).
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Kraepelin (1883)
- produced first comprehensive classification system of mental illness
- symptoms
- syndromes (cluster of symptoms)
- assumption that each syndrome had a specific organic cause
- following a particular course
- began the medical model
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diagnostic classification
- set of concepts (based on observation
- open to debate about inclusion/modify
- ideas on disorder vary across time and place
- each DSM edition is reviewed
- sometimes fierce debate about what should be included as disorder
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Basis of classification in DSM
- claims to be atheoretical (neutral and unbiased by any preconceived theoretical assumptions)
- not based on etiology
- criteria are descriptive
- diagnosis requires impairment in functioning and/or reported distress
- classification is categorical
- polythetic criteria - a diagnosis based on the presence of a subset of symptoms or criterial; rather than requiring a specific set of criteria to be met.
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purposes/advantages of classification
- to provide a vocabulary and a shorthand description
- to provide basis for research into causes and therapies
- to provide a basis for making decisions about therapies/treatment
- to provide a basis for prognosis ie; a prediction about future course
- being given a diagnosis may help people to feel their experience/condition is known, recognisable and that something can be done
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misuse of diagnostic classification
- can give the illusion of explanation, but really only a description
- labels can obscure the person's individuality
- labels can result in social harm
- labels can encourage people to settle into a sick role
- implies problem is located with individual and can discourage looking at role of relationships, the social system or context
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mental health services- current issues
- lack of capacity/funding (inpatient, community, emergency)
- models of service (medication and case management vs psychotherapies)(consumer rights, collaborative models of service delivery and role of families who are carers)
- service gaps and barriers
- role of psychologists in private practice and challenges around medicare rebates for services
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main skull plates
- frontal bone
- parietal bone
- occipital bone
- temporal bone
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skull hole for brain stem
- Foramen magnum
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Hindbrain and midbrain
- medulla
- pons
- cerebellum
- midbrain
=tectum; inferior colliculi auditory
=superior colliculi;visual
- tegmentum
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hand model of the brain
-nemonic device
cortex fingers
thumb limbic
spinal cord wrist
brain stem palm
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Diencephalon: Thalamus and Hypothalamus
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pons latin
bridge
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medulla, ppons, and cerebellum responsible
- autonomic processes
- make up the hindbrain
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Cerebellum AKA little brain
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Thalamus
- egg like structure
- distribution centre for all info incoming from the spinal cord and sending back out
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hypothalamus
- hypo (under)
- basic drives and motivation
- very related to survival
- FFFF
-fight, fleeing, faunicating, feeding
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pituitary gland
- fill in
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Forebrain
- basal ganglia
- limbic system
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basal ganglia
- enter picture
- important for motor processing and motor cognition
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Limbic system
- amygdala (important for basic emotions)
- hippocampus (seahorse) memory processing and some emotional processing
- cingulate cortex (belt that holds things in) controlling and producing emotion
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neocortex (neo=new)
- division of brain into two hemispheres
- seperated by the longitudinal fissure
- outer layer of grey matter (mainly cell bodies) called cortex or neo cortex
- continue!!!!!!
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dividing the cerebral hemispheres
- frontal lobe
- parietal lobe
- occipital lobe
- temporal lobe
(if damaged would not be able to recognise objects and faces)
- ventral (what) stream^
- precentral sulcus
122
hierarchical organization of function
- projection map: map of the location of the inputs and outputs to the cortex
- add pic
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Primary areas
Anterior, motor
- frontal lobe - motor functions
Posterior, sensory
- parietal lobe = body senses
- temporal lobe = auditory functions
- occipital lobe = visual functions
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Motor Cortex
- situation in frontal lobe in narrow strip anterior to the central sulcus
- end point for visuo-motor and onject recognition processes initiated in primary sensory areas (extends in longitudinal fissure, broadman area 4)
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somatosensory cortex
- situatied in parietal lobe in narrow strip prosterior to the central sulcus (extends into longitudinal fissure, broadman areas 1,2 and 3)
- receives info about tactile stimulation, position of body space (proprioception)
- similar representation of body as motor cortex
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primary sensory cortices
- visual cortex (V1 or Striate cortex)
- continue
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hierarchical organization of function
- fill in
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the connectome
- the highways of the brain
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steuctural and functional brain asymmetries
- hemispheric specialisation; dominance; lateralisation
- early suggestions eg. Wigan (1844), that the hemispheres are independent
- Knowledge about lateralisation comes from lesion studies; wada procedure toanaesthetise one hemisphere
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the corpus callosum and split brain studies
tactile
131
from neural tube to brain
- day 18 after conception PNS and CNS begin to develop
- day 26 ectodermal tissue at one end of the embryo has fused together (neurulation) to form neural tube
- cavity in tube>ventricles
- anterior of tube > brain
- Posterior> spinal cord
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Tegmentum
Part of midbrain and Made up of two parts
- iron red nucleus =helps to coordinate movement
- periaqueductal grey = made up of grey matter and is involved in suppressing pain
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Day 18 after conception (neurodevelopment)
- PNS and CNS begin to develop
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Day 26 after conception (neurodevelopment)
-ectodermal tissue at one end of the embryo had fused together (neurulation) to form neural tube
- cavity in tube=ventricles
- anterior of tube=brain
- posterior =spinal cord
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Neural tube to brain (areas)
Proscencephalon (forebrain)
-telencephalon (cerebral hemispheres)
- diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus)
Mesencephalon (midbrain)
Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
- metencephalon (pons and cerebellum)
Myelencephalon
- medulla
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Neural development
Proliferation
- corticogenesis begins in 6th gestational week
- most concentrated period of neuronal proliferation
Migration
- mostly complete by 18th week
- six layers of neurons
- malformations associated with aberrant cell migration
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Neural development
Proliferation
- corticogenesis begins in 6th gestational week
- most concentrated period of neuronal proliferation
Migration
- mostly complete by 18th week
- six layers of neurons
- malformations associated with aberrant cell migration
138
lipid bilayer
- two layers of fat molecules that make up the neuron cell membrane.
- contains protein molecules (channel proteins, signal proteins)
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channel proteins
- within lipid bilayer
- protein in which certain molecules can pass
140
signal proteins
- within lipid bilayer
- transfers a signal to the inside of the neuron when particular molecules bind to them on the outside of the membrane.
141
classes of neurons
a way of classifying neurons based on the number of processes emanating from their cell bodies.
- multipolar neuron
- unipolar neuron
- bipolar neuron
- interneurons
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Multipolar neuron
a neuron with more than two processes extending from its cell body.
- most neurons are multipolar
143
unipolar neuron
a neuron with one process extending from its cell body
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bipolar neuron
a neuron with two processes extending from its cell body.
145
interneuron
neurons with a short axon or no axon at all.
146
Soma
the cell body
147
Dendrite
a projection that receives
electrochemical stimulation from other neural
cells and conducts it to the soma
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Axon
A projection that extends from the soma
to the terminal endings and transmits the
neural signal
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Myelin
a white fatty substance that provides
insulation and permits the rapid transmission of
the electrical signals along the axon
150
synaptic terminals/buttons
the botton like
endings of the axon branches which release
neurotransmitters into the synapse
151
Gross neural structures
Two main types
- composed primarily of cell bodies
(cluster in the CNS=Nuclei, PNS=Ganglia)
- composed primarily of axons
(cluster in the CNS=Tracts, PNS=nerves)
152
glia function
to support neurons
153
Glia cells in the PNS
- Schwann cells
- Satellite cells
154
Schwann cells
- PNS glia
- myelinate neurons in the PNS
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Satellite cells
- PNS glia
- regulate the external chemical
environment of neurons, particularly calcium ions.
156
Spinal cord 3 main roles
- Relay sensory (afferent) messages to the brain
- Send motor (efferent) output to different parts of the body
- Produce simple reflexive actions
157
Anatomy of the spinal cord
Grey matter
Dorsal horns
Ventral horns
White matter
Spinal nerves
Pairs of spinal nerves attach to
the spinal cord at 31 levels of the
spine
Dorsal root (Afferent)
Ventral Root (Efferent)
158
Myelencephalon
- medulla (contain the reticular formation
159
Metencephalon
- Pons (contain the reticular formation)
- Cerebellum
(precise motor control
160
mesencephalon
Tectum (roof)
Superior colliculi
* Visual
* Inferior colliculi
* Auditory
Tegmentum (Floor)
- Reticular formation
* Periaqueductal grey
* Substantia nigra
* Red nucleus
161
Diencephalon
Thalamus
* Relay station for sensory and motor
information
Hypothalamus
* Regulates motivated behaviours
* Eating
* Sleep
* Sexual behaviour
* Regulates release of hormones from the
pituitary gland
162
Telencephalon
Neocortex
* Major fissures
* Major gyri
* Four lobes
* Cerebral commissures
Limbic system
Basal Ganglia
163
Limbic system
* Involved in regulation of motivated
behaviours (aka “The 4 Fs)
* Fleeing
* Feeding
* Fighting
* Sexual behaviour
* Emotion, fear
* Memory
164
Basal Ganglia
- Motor control and motor learning
- Reward and reinforcement
165
Neo cortex contains
- grey and white matter
166
surface of the cortex is convoluted
Sulci or Fissures
* Longitudinal fissure
* Central fissure
* Lateral fissure
Gyri
* Precentral gyrus
* Postcentral gyrus
Cerebral commissures
* Corpus callosum
167
Frontal lobe (Telencephalon)
- motor
- executive functions
168
Parietal lobe (Telencephalon)
- Somatosensory
169
Temporal lobe (Telencephalon)
- Auditory
- Memory
170
Occipital Lobe (Telencephalon)
- Process visual information
171
Resting membrane potential
Discovered by Hodgkin and Huxley (c. 1939)
Recording electrobe inserted into the neuron
while at rest
Difference in voltage inside vs outside the cell
-70 millivolts (mV)
172
extracellular (outside the cell) ions
- sodium (Na+)
- Cloride (Cl-)
173
Intracellular (inside the cell) Ions
- Potassium (K+)
- Organic anions (A-) confined to the inside of the neuron
174
How is resting membrane potential maintained?
- Electrostatic pressure
- Concentration gradient
- Sodium/Potassium pump
175
(Postsynaptic potentials)
when neurotransmitters bind to the receptors on the dendrites of the post-synaptic neuron, they may:
- Depolarise the neuron (Excitatory Post Synaptic Potentials [EPSP])
- Hyperpolarise the neuron (Inhibitory Post Synaptic Potentials [EPSP])
176
axodendritic
axon-dendrite
177
axosomatic
axon-soma
178
tripartite synapses
Involve two neurons + an
astroglial cell actively
modulating transmission.
179
dendrodendritic synapse
Can be bidirectional; dendrites
synapsing on each other.
180
axoaxonic synapses
Presynaptic facilitation or
inhibition for local control of
neurotransmitter release.
181
small-molecule neurotransmitters
Synthesised in the terminal button cytoplasm.
◆ Packaged into small vesicles by the Golgi complex.
◆ Stored near the presynaptic membrane for quick release.
182
Large-molecule neurotransmitters (neuropeptides)
Assembled in the cell body on ribosomes.
◆ Packaged by the Golgi, transported to terminals via microtubules.
◆ Stored in larger vesicles, often further from the release zone.
183
coexistence of large and small-molecule neurotransmitters
◆ A single neuron can release more than one transmitter (e.g., a peptide + a small molecule).
◆ Neurons may switch transmitter types during development or in response to experience.
184
exocytosis
releasing neurotransmitters
185
