Psych Vocab Part 5 Flashcards
Actor/Observer Theory
We are more likely to attribute our actions to external circumstances, rather than to our personality.
Attribution theory
A theory that supposes that one attempts to understand the behavior of others by attributing feelings, beliefs, and intentions to them.
Culture
A group’s shared values, beliefs, language, traditions, and behaviors.
Dispositional attribution
The assumption that a person’s behavior is caused by their internal characteristics.
Downward social comparison
A psychological phenomenon where an individual compares themselves to someone who is perceived as being less capable, less successful, or worse off in some way.
Explanatory style
A person’s habitual way of interpreting and explaining negative events in their life.
External locus of control
The belief that external factors, like fate or luck, determine a person’s success or failure.
Fundamental attribution error
A cognitive bias that causes people to overemphasize personality traits and underestimate situational factors when judging others.
Internal locus of control
the belief that you control your own life and outcomes through your actions
lateral social comparison
comparing yourself to someone you see as “equal” to you in various areas.
Mere exposure effect
a psychological phenomenon that describes how people develop a preference for things they are familiar with
Optimistic explanatory style
A style characterized by narratives that blame external forces or isolated events that affect a person’s life
Pessimistic explanatory style
a tendency to explain negative events as being caused by internal, stable, and global factors
Relative deprivation
persons may feel deprived of some desirable thing relative to their own past, other persons or groups, or some other social category
Self-fulfilling prophecy
process through which an originally false expectation leads to its own confirmation
Self-serving bias
A self-serving bias is any cognitive or perceptual process that is distorted by the need to maintain and enhance self-esteem, or the tendency to perceive oneself in an overly favorable manner.
Situational attribution
Behavior that is attributed to external factors
Social Comparison
a behavior where we compare certain aspects of ourselves (e.g., our behavior, opinions, status, and success) to other people so that we have a better assessment of ourselves
Upward social comparison
a psychological phenomenon where individuals compare themselves to others who are perceived as being superior in some way
Belief perseverance
a psychological phenomenon that describes when someone holds onto their beliefs even when presented with evidence that contradicts them
Cognitive dissonance
the mental discomfort or tension that arises when a person holds two conflicting beliefs, ideas, or values, or when their actions contradict their beliefs, leading them to seek ways to reduce this discomfort
Cognitive load
the amount of mental effort required to process and retain information
Confirmation bias
a cognitive bias in psychology where individuals tend to seek out, interpret, and favor information that confirms their existing beliefs or hypotheses while ignoring or dismissing contradictory evidence
Discrimination
The unjust treatment of members of a group based on their age, gender, race, or other identity
Ethnocentrism
a psychological phenomenon where individuals view their own culture as the center of the universe and judge other cultures based on their own norms and values
Implicit attitudes
automatic evaluations or judgments that occur without conscious awareness
Ingroup
the study of how people relate to groups they identify with, and how these relationships impact behavior
Ingroup bias
a cognitive bias that causes people to favor members of their own group over others
Just-world phenomenon
a cognitive bias where people believe that the world is fundamentally fair and that individuals generally get what they deserve, leading to assumptions that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people
Outgroup
a group of people that a person does not identify with or belong to
Outgroup homogeneity bias
the tendency to think that people who are not part of your in-group are more similar to each other than they actually are
Prejudice
preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience
Stereotype
an oversimplified belief or image about a group of people
Altruism
the belief in or practice of disinterested and selfless concern for the well-being of others
Attitude strength
the degree to which the attitude is resistant to change and influences cognition and behavior
Attentional focus
the place where someone focuses their attention either internally or externally.
Burnout
a state of emotional, physical, and mental exhaustion caused by prolonged or excessive stress
Bystander effect
the tendency for individuals to be less likely to help someone in need when others are present, often due to a diffusion of responsibility
Central route
a method of information processing that involves thinking critically about the arguments in a persuasive message
Collectivism
a worldview where people prioritize the group over the individual
Conformity
when someone changes their beliefs, opinions, or actions to match those of a group or social situation
Deindividuation
a psychological state where people in a group lose their sense of self and personal identity
Diffusion of responsibility
a psychological phenomenon that describes how people feel less responsible to act when others are present
Door-in-the-face technique
a psychological persuasion strategy that involves making a large request first, and then following up with a smaller request
Elaboration likelihood model
a theory explaining how people process persuasive messages, proposing that individuals can be persuaded through two main routes: the central route (carefully considering the message content) or the peripheral route (relying on superficial cues like the speaker’s attractiveness), depending on their motivation and ability to elaborate on the information presented
False consensus effect
a cognitive bias where people tend to overestimate how much others share their beliefs, opinions, and behaviors, assuming their own views are more common than they actually are
Foot-in-the-door technique
a persuasion tactic where a person is first asked to agree to a small request, which then increases the likelihood of them agreeing to a larger, subsequent request, based on the principle of consistency in behavior
Group polarization
a phenomenon in social psychology where individuals in a group tend to adopt more extreme positions on an issue after discussing it with one another
Groupthink
a psychological phenomenon that occurs when a group makes decisions without critically evaluating alternatives or considering the consequences
Halo effect
a cognitive bias that causes people to form general opinions about someone or something based on a single positive impression
Individualism
the belief that people should prioritize their own interests, values, and beliefs, rather than conforming to what others expect
(I/O) psychology
the scientific study of human behavior in the workplace, aiming to improve the effectiveness, health, and well-being of both individuals and organizations
Informational social influence
the phenomenon where an individual changes their behavior or opinion based on the information they receive from others
Multiculturalism
the idea that a society’s diverse cultures should be accepted and supported
Normative social influence
the tendency for individuals to conform to the norms of a group in order to be liked and accepted
Obedience
when someone complies with orders from an authority figure
Peripheral route
a method of persuasion where individuals are influenced by superficial cues like the attractiveness of the speaker, positive emotions, or celebrity endorsements, rather than carefully considering the actual content or logic of the message itself
Persuasion
the study of how people are influenced to change their beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors
Prosocial behavior
actions intended to benefit others, encompassing acts like helping, sharing, and cooperating
Role
a psychological theory that explains how a person’s social behavior is defined by their social role
Situational variables
an environmental factor that can potentially influence a participant’s behavior during a study
Social debt
a perceived obligation or feeling of indebtedness to another person or group
Social facilitation
the tendency for individuals to perform better on simple or well-learned tasks when in the presence of others, or when being observed, compared to when they are alone
Social influence theory
a psychological concept that explains how individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are shaped by the actions and opinions of those around them
Social loafing
when people put in less effort when working in a group than when working alone
Social norms
unwritten rules or shared expectations within a group that define what behaviors are considered acceptable and appropriate in a given situation
Social reciprocity norm
a social rule that encourages people to respond to kindness with kindness
Social responsibility norm
the expectation that people should help others and contribute to society’s well-being
Social traps
a situation where individuals, acting in their own self-interest, unintentionally cause a negative outcome for the group or society as a whole, despite their short-term gains
Superordinate goals
shared objectives that require multiple groups to work together to achieve
Defense mechanisms
unconscious psychological processes that protect an individual from distressing thoughts, feelings, or experiences
Denial
a defense mechanism in which an individual refuses to acknowledge or accept a painful or uncomfortable reality
Displacement
a defense mechanism where someone transfers negative emotions from their original target to another person or thing
Ego
the part of the personality that mediates between the instinctual desires (id) and the moral conscience (superego
Humanistic psychology
a psychological approach that focuses on the potential and inherent goodness of each person
Personality
the unique combination of a person’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
Preconscious
the mental state where thoughts, memories, and feelings are not currently in conscious awareness but can be easily brought to the forefront of the mind if needed
Projection
a defense mechanism where an individual unconsciously attributes their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviors to another person or group
Projective tests
a type of psychological assessment that involve presenting ambiguous stimuli to individuals and asking them to interpret or respond to them
Psychoanalysis
a theory and method of psychology that aims to understand and treat mental disorders by exploring the unconscious mind
Psychodynamic theory
a psychological approach that studies the unconscious forces that drive human behavior
Rationalization
a psychological defense mechanism in which individuals create self-justifying explanations for their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors
Reaction formation
a psychological defense mechanism in which a person expresses the opposite of their true feelings or desires
Regression
a phenomenon where an individual reverts to earlier, less mature behaviors or coping mechanisms in response to stress, anxiety, or conflict
Repression
a defense mechanism that involves unconsciously pushing painful memories or thoughts out of consciousness
Self-actualization
the process of becoming the best version of yourself
Sublimation
a defense mechanism where unacceptable impulses or desires are channeled into socially acceptable behaviors.
Unconditional regard
The act of accepting and valuing someone without judgement or conditions.
Unconscious
The part of the mind that is not consciously accessible
Unconscious processes
mental operations that occur before conscious prepration
Agreeableness
A person’s tendency to be compassionate, cooperative, and trusting
Big five theory
a personality theory that describes people’s personalities using five traits
Conscientiousness
A personality trait that describes a person’s tendency to be responsible, organized, and goal-oriented.
Emotional stability
The ability of an individual to maintain a consistent and balanced emotional state.
Extraversion
A personality trait that describes someone who is outgoing, sociable, and energized by being around others.
Factor analysis
a statistical method used to identify, underlying unobservable variables (called factors) that explain patterns of correlations among a set of observed variables
MMPI
A widely used psychological test designed to access personality traits and psychopathology.
Openness to experience
A personality trait that a describes a person’s willingness to try new new things, explore new ideas, and embrace unfamiliar experiences.
Neuroticism
A personality traits characterized by a tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anxiety, worry, irritability, and self-doubt.
Personality inventories
A psychological tool that access a person’s personality traits, behaviors, and preferences.
Reciprocal determinism
A theory set forward by psychologist Albert Bandura which states that a person’s behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment.
Self-concept
The individual’s perception and understanding of their own identity, including their beliefs, attitudes, and values about themselves.
Self-efficacy
An individual’s own belief in their ability to successfully complete a task or achieve a goal.
Self-esteem
An individuals overall evaluation of their own worth and value.
Social-cognitive theory
A model that explains how people learn behaviors through a dynamic interactions between their personal factors, environmental influences, and their own behaviors.
Trait theory
An approach that studies personality by identifying and measuring relatively stable, enduring characteristics called “traits” which influence a person’s behavior, thoughts, and emotions across different situations.
Affiliation
the desire or need to establish, maintain, and restore positive social relationships with others
Approach-approach conflicts
a situation where someone must choose between two equally desirable options, meaning they are faced with a decision between two attractive goals, causing internal conflict due to the positive aspects of both choices
Approach-avoidance conflicts
a situation where an individual is simultaneously attracted to and repelled by the same goal
Arousal theory
the idea that individuals are motivated to maintain an optimal level of physiological arousal
Avoidance-avoidance conflicts
a situation where someone must choose between two equally undesirable options, meaning they have to pick the “lesser of two evils” because neither choice is appealing, causing stress and tension due to the need to select one despite disliking both alternatives
Belonging
the feeling of being accepted, included, and connected to others, typically in a social group or community
Boredom susceptibility
an individual’s tendency or propensity to experience boredom easily and frequently
Disinhibition
reduced ability or lack of self-control over thoughts, emotions, and behaviors
Drive-reduction theory
a psychological theory that states that people are motivated to reduce tension by satisfying their needs
Extrinsic motivation
the drive to perform an action to gain an external reward or avoid punishment
Ghrelin
a hormone that plays a crucial role in regulating appetite and energy balance
Homeostasis
the body’s ability to maintain a stable and balanced internal environment despite external changes
Hypothalamus
a small region of the brain located below the thalamus. In psychology, the hypothalamus is crucial for maintaining homeostasis, or the body’s internal balance
Incentive
the idea that people are motivated by external incentives, or rewards and punishments, to take certain actions
Incentive theory
a psychological theory that explains how people are motivated by the expectation of rewards or punishments
Instincts
innate, automatic, and complex patterns of behavior that are present in all living organisms
Intrinsic motivation
the drive to do something because it’s interesting or enjoyable, rather than for a reward or external incentive
Lateral hypothalamus
a region of the brain located in the hypothalamus, which plays a crucial role in regulating eating and energy balance
Leptin
a hormone produced by fat cells that plays a crucial role in regulating appetite and energy balance
Lewin’s motivational conflicts theory
a concept developed by Kurt Lewin that describes how individuals experience internal conflict when faced with competing desires or goals
Motivation
the driving force that encourages people to act in a certain way to achieve a goal
Optimal level of arousal
the specific level of mental and physical activation where an individual performs best on a task
Pituitary gland
a small gland located at the base of the brain that produces hormones which control the activity of most other hormone-secreting glands in the body
Self-determination theory
a psychological theory that explains how people are motivated to make choices and pursue goals
Sensation-seeking
a personality trait that describes a person’s desire for new experiences and willingness to take risks
Thrill and adventure seeking
a personality trait characterized by the desire to engage in physically and mentally stimulating activities that involve risk and uncertainty
Ventromedial hypothalamus
a complex brain structure that is integral to many neuroendocrine functions, including glucose regulation, thermogenesis, and appetitive, social, and sexual behaviors
Yerkes-Dodson Law
a psychological principle that describes the relationship between arousal and performance
Affect
the outward expression of emotions and feelings
Broaden and build theory
experiencing positive emotions expands an individual’s momentary thought-action repertoire, leading to the development of personal resources like social, psychological, and physical skills over time, which can then be drawn upon to cope with challenges
Cognitive appraisal theory
a psychological theory that explains how people interpret and respond to events, which in turn influences their emotions
Display rule
the social and cultural norms that govern how individuals should express their emotions in different situations
Elicitor
stimuli or events that trigger or evoke specific responses, such as emotions, behaviors, or physiological reactions
Emotion
a branch of psychology that studies emotions, their causes, and their effects
Emotional cognition
the mental processes involved in understanding, experiencing, and regulating emotions
