Psych Vocab Part 4 Flashcards
Psychology
Continuous development
development and changes in individuals occur gradually
Developmental Psych
focus on human growth and changes across the lifespan, including physical, cognitive, social, intellectual, perceptual, personality and emotional growth
Discontinuous development
Development takes place in unique stages: It occurs at specific times or ages. With this type of development, the change is more sudden.
Lifespan development
studies how humans learn, mature, and adapt from infancy to adulthood to the elderly phases of life
Nature and Nurture
Nature versus nurture is a long-standing debate in biology and society about the relative influence on human beings of their genetic inheritance (nature) and the environmental conditions of their development (nurture).
Stability and Change
The difference between stability and change in psychology is that stability refers to traits and behaviors that remain more or less constant throughout a person’s life while change refers to traits and behaviors that are more fluid and flexible throughout a person’s life
Cross sectional
a research design in which individuals, typically of different ages or developmental levels, are compared at a single point in time
Longitudinal
researchers repeatedly examine the same individuals to detect any changes that might occur over a period of time
Adolescence
the period of transition between childhood and adulthood
Critical periods
A critical period is a time during early postnatal life when the development and maturation of functional properties of the brain, its “plasticity,” is strongly dependent on experience or environmental influences
Developmental milestones
Developmental milestones are things most children can do by a certain age
Fine motor coordination
the coordination of muscles, bones, and nerves to produce small, exact movements
Gross motor coordination
Gross motor skills are abilities that let us do tasks that involve large muscles in our torso, legs, and arms
Growth spurt
the rapid and intense increase in the rate of growth in height and weight that occurs during the adolescent stage of the human life cycle
Imprinting
any kind of phase-sensitive learning (learning occurring at a particular age or a particular life stage) that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behaviour
Maturation
a stage of completion of growth and strengthening of acquired mental, social and emotional development
Menarche
the first incidence of menstruation in a female, marking the onset of puberty
Menopause
the stage of a woman’s life when her menstrual periods stop permanently, and she can no longer get pregnant
Prenatal influence
The internal and external environment of the mother during the developmental stages of the fetus affects the offspring’s health
Primary sex characteristics
characteristics directly involved in reproduction of the species
Puberty
The time of life when a child experiences physical and hormonal changes that mark a transition into adulthood
Reflexes
an action that is performed as a response to a stimulus and without conscious thought
Rooting Reflex
When a touch to the cheek of a baby will make it turn it’s head in that direction in order to locate the nipple and breastfeed.
Secondary sex characteristics
Features not directly concerned with reproduction.
Sensitive periods
the notion that the effects of environmental stimuli on the developing organism are stronger during certain periods of development
Spermarche
a developmental milestone in mid-puberty, characterized by the onset of sperm production before the ability to produce an ejaculate
Teratogens
Any agent that causes an abnormality following fetal exposure during pregnancy. Teratogens are usually discovered after an increased prevalence of a particular birth defect.
Visual Cliff
An apparatus created by psychologists D.Walk at Cornell University to investigate depth perception in humans and other animal species.
Gender
the characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that are socially constructed
Sex
either of the two main categories (male and female) into which humans and most other living things are divided on the basis of their reproductive functions (hormones, reproductive organs, etc.)
Sexual Orientation
a person’s identity in relation to the gender or genders to which they are sexually attracted; the fact of being heterosexual, homosexual, etc.
Abstract thinking
the ability to consider ideas, objects, and principles that are not physically present
Accommadation
the process of changing existing mental frameworks to incorporate new information or experiences
Animism
the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities or possess a soul
Assimilation
a cognitive process that involves incorporating new information into existing knowledge
Concrete operational
a stage of cognitive development in which children begin to think logically and rationally about physical objects
Conservation
the study of how humans interact with nature, and how to encourage people to preserve the environment
Crystalized intelligence
the accumulated knowledge and skills acquired through experience and education
Dementia
a psychological condition characterized by a progressive decline in cognitive functions, such as memory, reasoning, language, and problem-solving abilities
Egocentrism
the inability to understand or appreciate perspectives other than one’s own
Fluid intelligence
a cognitive ability that involves the ability to solve novel problems, think critically, and adapt to new situations without relying on previously acquired knowledge or experience
Formal operational
the final stage of cognitive development in Jean Piaget’s theory
Hypothetical thinking
the cognitive ability to imagine and reason about possible scenarios, even if they are not currently true or even possible
Mental symbols
a hypothetical internal cognitive symbol that represents external reality or its abstractions.
Object permanence
the understanding that an object continues to exist even when it is not visible or directly perceived
Pre-operational stage
a stage of cognitive development in which children use symbols to represent ideas but struggle with logical reasoning
Pretend play
a form of play in which children create and engage in imaginary scenarios
Puberty
a developmental stage during which individuals experience significant physical, hormonal, and psychological changes that mark the transition from childhood to adulthood
Reversibility
the ability to understand that changes can be reversed
Scafffolding
a process that helps learners achieve goals by providing temporary support
Schema
a cognitive structure that represents a person’s knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about a particular concept or situation
Sensorimotor stage
the first stage of cognitive development in Jean Piaget’s theory of intellectual development
Theory of mind
the ability to understand and attribute mental states like beliefs, desires, intentions, and emotions to oneself and others
Zone of proximal
a psychological concept that describes the range of tasks that a learner can accomplish with guidance, compared to what they can do independently
Babbling
a developmental stage in language acquisition where infants produce repetitive, meaningless sounds
Cooing
the early vocalizations made by infants, typically between 2 and 4 months of age
Grammer
the set of rules and mental processes that govern how words are combined to create meaningful sentences
Language
a system of communication that uses rules to convey meaning
Morphemes
the smallest part of a word that gives it meaning
One-word stage
a developmental stage in which children use single words to convey meaning
Overgeneralization
a cognitive distortion where an individual draws broad conclusions based on limited evidence or isolated events
Phonemes
a sound in a language that is perceived as a single unit by native speakers
Semantics
the study of how the mind stores meaning
Syntax
the rules and principles that govern the structure and arrangement of words in a sentence
Telegraphic speech
a developmental stage in language acquisition where children use short, grammatically simple sentences that resemble telegrams
Attachment
a branch of psychology that studies the emotional bond between individuals, typically between a child and their primary caregiver
Anxious Attachment
an insecure attachment style where individuals have a deep fear of abandonment, often leading to clingy, needy behaviors and a constant need for reassurance and validation from their partners, stemming from inconsistent caregiving experiences early in life
Attachment styles:
Attachment styles describe how individuals typically relate to caregivers and romantic partners, based on early childhood experiences. There are four main attachment styles: Secure, avoidant, anxious, and disorganized
Ecological systems theory
a scientific theory that explains how human development is shaped by the environments we interact with
Exosystem
the external environments that indirectly influence a person’s development, even though they do not directly involve the individual
Imaginary audience
a psychological state where someone feels like they are being watched and judged by others
Authoritarian
a concept that describes a tendency to obey authority figures, adhere to traditional values, and think rigidly
Authoritative parenting
a parenting style that involves setting clear boundaries while also being supportive and nurturing
Insecure attachment
a pattern of attachment characterized by anxiety, uncertainty, and mistrust in interpersonal relationships
Macrosystem
the broader societal and cultural influences that impact an individual’s development and behavior
Mesosystem
refers to the interactions and relationships between the different microsystems in a person’s life
Microsystem
the most immediate and impactful environment surrounding an individual, including the people and relationships they directly interact with on a daily basis, such as family members, friends, teachers, and peers
Parallel play
when children play independently in the same area, using the same toys or materials, but without interacting
Peer influence
the effect that people have on one another’s behaviors, attitudes, and decisions
Avoidant attachment
an attachment style where a person tends to feel uncomfortable with emotional intimacy, prioritize independence, and struggle to fully trust others, often leading them to avoid getting too close to partners or displaying strong emotional needs in relationships
Chronosystem
describes how time influences a person’s development
Disorganized attachment
a type of insecure attachment style where a child displays inconsistent or confusing behaviors towards their caregiver, often stemming from unpredictable or frightening caregiving experiences, leading to a lack of clear attachment patterns and potential feelings of fear and confusion in the child
Permissive parenting
a parenting style where parents set few rules and boundaries for their children
Personal fable
the belief that adolescents have that they are unique and special, and that they are protected from problems and difficulties
Secure attachment
a healthy and trusting relationship style where a person feels safe, understood, and valued in their interactions with others, typically developed in childhood through consistent and responsive caregiving, allowing them to comfortably explore their environment while knowing they can rely on their caregiver for support when needed
Separation anxiety
a mental health condition characterized by excessive and persistent fear and distress when separated from attachment figures, such as parents or caregivers
Social Clock
a cultural expectation of when people should reach certain life milestones
Temperament
an individual’s enduring emotional and behavioral tendencies that are present from early childhood
Adverse childhood experiences
potentially traumatic events that occur during childhood (0-17 years)
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
refers to the second stage of Erik Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, where toddlers between 18 months and 3 years old are primarily focused on developing a sense of independence and control over their own actions, either leading to a feeling of autonomy or, if not supported, feelings of shame and doubt about their abilities if they are overly criticized or restricted
Emerging adulthood
a developmental stage that extends from the late teens (typically around age 18) to the mid-twenties (around age 25)
Ethnic identity
a person’s psychological connection to an ethnic group, including their beliefs, values, and cultural identity
Familial identity
the sense of belonging to a family and the influence that family has on an individual’s identity
Gender identity
an individual’s deep-seated, internal sense of being male, female, a blend of both, or neither
Generativity vs. stagnation
a stage of psychosocial development in which people either contribute to society or become complacent
Identity
a person’s sense of who they are, including their unique traits and their place in social groups
Identity vs. role confusion
essentially, trying to figure out their values, beliefs, and goals in life, or experiencing confusion if they cannot solidify this sense of self; this stage typically occurs during adolescence, between the ages of 12 and 18
Identity achievement status
a psychological state where a person has explored many options and made a strong commitment to their beliefs and values
Identity diffusion
a psychological state where a person lacks a strong sense of self and has not committed to an identity
Identity foreclosure
a psychological state where someone accepts the values and goals of others without exploring their own options
Identity moratorium
a stage in identity development where an individual is actively exploring different options and possibilities for their identity, but has not yet made a firm commitment to any specific path, essentially experiencing a period of “trying on” different roles before settling on one
Identity status model
a theory developed by psychologist James Marcia, which describes four potential states of identity development based on the level of exploration and commitment an individual has made towards forming a sense of self, particularly during adolescence
Industry vs. inferiority
a stage of psychosocial development in which children develop a sense of competence and self-worth
Initiative vs. guilt
a stage of psychosocial development that children go through in early childhood
Integrity vs. despair
It’s the final stage, and it’s a conflict between how a person feels about their life and their acceptance of death
Intimacy vs. isolation
refers to a stage in Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, where young adults grapple with the challenge of forming close, committed relationships (intimacy) versus experiencing feelings of loneliness and disconnection (isolation) if they are unable to establish meaningful connections with others
Occupational identity
an individual’s sense of self and identity derived from their chosen occupation or profession
Possible selves
a psychological concept that describes the imagined future identities that individuals envision for themselves
Racial identity
a person’s sense of self that is connected to their racial group membership
Religious identity
a person’s sense of belonging to a religious group or church
Sexual orientation
a person’s enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and physical attraction to individuals of a particular sex or gender
Stage theory of psychosocial
Erik Erikson’s theory which outlines eight stages of human development, from infancy to late adulthood, where each stage is characterized by a psychosocial crisis that needs to be resolved to develop a healthy personality
Development
the study of how people change over time, from infancy to adulthood
Trust vs. mistrust
the first stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, where infants learn to either trust their caregivers to meet their needs, developing a sense of security, or to mistrust them if their needs are not consistently met, leading to anxiety and suspicion about the world around them
Acquisition
one of the first stages of learning when a response is established. In classical conditioning, acquisition refers to the period when the stimulus comes to evoke the conditioned response
Association
a test in which the participant responds to a stimulus word with the first word that comes to mind
Associative learning
a learning principle that states that ideas and experiences reinforce each other and can be mentally linked to one another
Behavioral perspective
a theory that focuses on how a person’s environment shapes their behavior
Biological preparedness
the idea that organisms are biologically predisposed to quickly learning associations between stimuli, responses, and reinforcers
Classical conditioning
a learning process that creates associations between stimuli and responses
Conditioned response
a behavior that does not come naturally, but must be learned by the individual by pairing a neutral stimulus with a potent stimulus
Conditioned stimulus
a behavior that does not come naturally, but must be learned by the individual by pairing a neutral stimulus with a potent stimulus
Counterconditioning
often used when there is a need to replace an undesirable response or behavior with a more desirable one
Extinction
the gradual weakening or disappearance of a learned behavior
Habituation
a decrease in an animal or person’s response to a stimulus after repeated exposure
Higher-order conditioning
occurs when a conditioned stimulus becomes associated with a new unconditioned stimulus
One-trial learning
learning takes place in a single pairing of a response and stimulus and is not strengthened over time by repeated exposure to a stimulus
Spontaneous recovery
Spontaneous recovery is when a behavior that is believed to be extinct (the conditioned behavior has disappeared or stopped occurring when the stimulus is present) unexpectedly and quickly returns after a period of rest or lessened response
Stimulus discrimination
occurs when an individual responds to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus
Stimulus generalization
occurs when an individual responds to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus
Taste aversion
a learned response to eating spoiled or toxic food
Unconditioned response
one that is automatic, reflexive, and unlearned
Unconditioned stimulus
something that naturally triggers an automatic response
Continuous reinforcement
when a reinforcer or reward is given every time a desired behavior is exhibited
Fixed Interval
a set amount of time between occurrences of something like a reward, result, or review
Fixed ratio
a schedule of reinforcement
Instinctive drift
the tendency of some trained animals to revert back to instinctual behaviors
Law of Effect
responses that produce a satisfying effect after a particular stimulus are likely to occur again
Learned helplessness
a mental state in which someone feels unable to change or avoid painful or stressful situations
Negative reinforcement
the encouragement of certain behaviors by removing or avoiding a negative outcome or stimuli
Operant conditioning
a learning process that uses rewards and punishments to modify behavior
Partial reinforcement
a conditioning process in which a behavior or response is reinforced only a portion of the time, rather than every time it occurs
Positive reinforcement
a method for behavior modification that increases the likelihood or probability that a behavior will occur
Primary reinforcers
things that motivate behavior because they satiate an individual’s basic survival needs
Punishment
a consequence which reduces or aims to reduce the likelihood of a targeted and undesirable behavior from happening again
Positive punishment
giving an undesirable consequence after an unwanted behavior to make it less appealing
Negative punishment
remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior
Reinforcement schedules
the rules that determine how often an organism is reinforced for a particular behavior
Scalloped graph
A graph with a scallop shape in it
Secondary reinforcers
a stimulus that reinforces a behavior after it has been associated with a primary reinforcer
Shaping
Shaping someone’s behavior to that which is more desired using conditioning or other methods
Superstitious behavior
a way people think they can control their fate by performing certain tasks in a certain way to either help alleviate anxiety or to simply better their chances in a certain situation
Variable interval
a schedule of reinforcement where a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed
Variable ratio
a partial schedule of reinforcement in which a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses
Cognitive maps
a mental representation of one’s physical environment.
Insight learning
a sudden realization of a solution to a problem
Latent learning
Latent learning is the subconscious retention of information without reinforcement or motivation. In latent learning, one changes behavior only when there is sufficient motivation later than when they subconsciously retained the information
Modeling
Modeling is: a method used in certain cognitive-behavioral techniques of psychotherapy whereby the client learns by imitation alone, copying a human model without any specific verbal direction by the
Social learning theory
Social learning theory is a theory of social behavior that proposes that new behaviors can be acquired by observing and imitating others.
Vicarious conditioning
a psychological concept that describes learning through observing others’ reactions, attitudes, and emotions
