Psych Vocab Part 2 Flashcards
Adoption Studies
research methods that compare the traits of adopted individuals to both their biological parents (genetic influence) and adoptive parents (environmental influence)
Environment
all external factors and conditions that surround and influence an individual
Eugenics
Eugenics is a pseudoscientific and immoral theory that attempts to improve the human race through genetics and selective breeding.
Evolutionary perspective
a branch of psychology that examines human behavior and mental processes through the lens of natural selection
Family studies
a research method that examines the relationships between family members to assess the influence of genetics on specific traits or behaviors
Genetic predisposition
an inherited characteristic that increases an individual’s likelihood of developing a specific trait, behavior, or mental health condition, often interacting with environmental factors to influence the outcome
Heredity
the process of passing on traits or characteristics from parents to their offspring through genetic material
Nature-Nurture issue
a long-standing debate about how much of an individual’s traits and behaviors are influenced by their genetic predisposition (“nature”) compared to their environmental experiences and upbringing (“nurture”) throughout life
Natural selection
the evolutionary process by which behavioral and cognitive traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more prevalent in a population over time
Twin studies
Twin studies are the jackpot for psychologists because they have the game exact genetic buildup which allows researchers to see how nurture plays a role and keeps the conditions more controlled.
Activation-synthesis
AST suggests that dreams are the result of random neural activity in the brainstem during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep being synthesized and interpreted by the higher brain centers (forebrain)
Circadian rhythm
internal biological processes that regulate various physiological and psychological functions over a 24-hour cycle
Consciousness
the state of being aware of and responsive to one’s surroundings, thoughts, and feelings
Consolidation theory
the process by which newly acquired memories are transformed into a stable and long-lasting form
Dream
a series of mental experiences that occur during sleep, including thoughts, emotions, and perceptions
Hypnagogic Sensations
vivid, dream-like experiences that occur during the transition between wakefulness and sleep
Insomnia
The chronic inability to sleep.
Jet Lag
a psychological and physiological condition that occurs when a person’s circadian rhythm, or internal clock, is disrupted by traveling across multiple time zones
Narcolepsy
a chronic neurological disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS), sudden and uncontrollable episodes of sleep (sleep attacks), and other symptoms such as cataplexy, sleep paralysis, and hypnagogic/hypnopompic hallucinations
NREM
a stage of sleep characterized by the absence of rapid eye movements (further divided into four categories)
NREM stages 1-4
The four stages of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep are stages 1–4 of sleep, and are characterized by different levels of depth, brain wave patterns, eye movements, and muscle tone
REM behavior disorder
a sleep disorder that causes people to act out their dreams during REM sleep
REM rebound
a clinical phenomenon that occurs when someone experiences more REM (rapid eye movement) sleep than normal
REM sleep
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is a sleep stage when most dreams occur. Brain waves similair to those while awake.
Shift work
any work schedule that falls outside of the standard hours of 7 AM–6 PM, including night work and rotating shifts
Sleep
a complex biological process that involves a state of unconsciousness where the brain is more responsive to internal stimuli than external stimuli
Sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by repeated episodes of breathing pauses (apneas) or shallow breathing (hypopneas) during sleep
Sleep hygiene
a set of behavioral and environmental practices that can help improve sleep quality
Sleep spindles
a pattern of brain waves that occur during non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, particularly stage 2 sleep
Somnambulism
Somnambulism, also known as sleepwalking, is a parasomnia (disorder of sleep-wake transition) characterized by episodes of walking or performing other complex behaviors while in a state of partial arousal from deep sleep
Central nervous system
the part of the nervous system composed of the brain and spinal cord, which acts as the body’s processing center, receiving sensory information, integrating it, and sending out motor commands to control bodily functions and behaviors
Peripheral nervous system
the network of nerves that extends outside the brain and spinal cord, essentially acting as a communication pathway to transmit signals between the central nervous system (CNS) and the rest of the body, allowing for sensory perception and motor control in different parts of the body like limbs and organs; it is considered one of the two main divisions of the nervous system, with the other being the CNS
Autonomic nervous system
a division of the nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions like heart rate, digestion, breathing, and pupil dilation, essentially regulating the body’s internal processes without conscious effort, often associated with the “fight or flight” response depending on the situation.
Sympathetic nervous system
The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is a branch of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the “fight-or-flight” response. It is activated in situations perceived as threatening or stressful, triggering physiological changes that prepare the body for action.
Parasympathetic nervous system
a branch of the autonomic nervous system responsible for promoting relaxation, digestion, and other bodily functions that conserve energy
Somatic nervous system
the part of the peripheral nervous system responsible for voluntary muscle control, meaning it governs conscious movements like moving your arms, legs, and facial muscles, essentially allowing you to consciously control your body’s actions; it also transmits sensory information from the skin and other external stimuli to the central nervous system
Nervous system
a complex network of nerves and nerve cells (neurons) that transmit signals to and from the brain and spinal cord, allowing the body to receive information from the environment, process it, and initiate responses through muscle actions or glandular secretions
Action potential
a brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron’s axon, representing a rapid change in the membrane potential, which is the signal that allows neurons to communicate with each other by transmitting information within the nervous system
All-or-nothing principle
the idea that a neuron or muscle cell will either fully respond to a stimulus or not at all, regardless of the strength of the stimulus
Axon
the long, slender extension of a neuron (nerve cell) that carries electrical impulses, called action potentials, away from the cell body, transmitting information to other neurons, muscles, or glands
Dendrites
short, branched extensions of a neuron (nerve cell) that act as the primary input structures
Depolarization
the process of a cell’s membrane potential becoming more positive, making it more likely to fire an action potential
Glial cells
non-neuronal cells within the nervous system that primarily provide support and protection to neurons
Interneurons
a type of neuron found within the central nervous system (CNS) that act as intermediaries between other neurons
Motor neurons
specialized nerve cells that transmit signals from the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) to muscles, glands, and other organs
Multiple sclerosis
a chronic, autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord). In MS, the immune system mistakenly attacks the myelin sheath, a protective covering that insulates nerve fibers. This attack damages the myelin and the nerves themselves, leading to a variety of neurological symptoms
Myasthenia gravis
Myasthenia gravis (MG) is an autoimmune disease that can cause psychiatric comorbidities, including depression and anxiety disorder
Myelin sheath
a fatty substance that surrounds and insulates certain nerve fibers in the central and peripheral nervous systems. It plays a crucial role in the transmission of electrical impulses (action potentials) along these fibers
Nerves
cables that carry electrical impulses between your brain and the rest of your body
Neural transmission
the process by which nerve cells (neurons) communicate with each other in the nervous system
Neuron
a specialized nerve cell that functions as the basic unit of the nervous system, responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting electrical signals throughout the body, enabling actions like thinking, feeling, and movement
Reflex
an involuntary, automatic, and nearly instantaneous response to a stimulus that happens without conscious effort
Reflex arc
the neural pathway that controls a reflex, and it’s made up of five components: receptor, sensory neuron, integration center, motor neuron, effector
Refractory period
a temporary decrease in responsiveness or sensitivity following an initial stimulus
Resting potential
the electrical voltage difference across the cell membrane of a neuron when it is not actively firing
Reuptake
Reuptake is what happens after a signal is transmitted: The neurotransmitter, its “work” completed, is reabsorbed back into the cell that previously released it. Reuptake is essential for synaptic functioning. It allows neurotransmitters to be reused and helps regulate neurotransmitter levels present in the synapse
Reuptake inhibitors
A reuptake inhibitor is a class of medication that blocks the reabsorption of neurotransmitters in the brain
Sensory neurons
specialized nerve cells that transmit sensory information from the body’s periphery (skin, muscles, organs) to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)
Synapse
the junction between two nerve cells (neurons) or between a neuron and another type of cell, such as a muscle cell
Threshold
the minimum intensity or difference in intensity of a stimulus that can be detected or perceived by an individual
Acetylcholine
ACh is a chemical messenger released by nerve cells (neurons) to communicate with other neurons or target cells: muscle movement, memory and learning, mood and emotion, sleep and wakefullness
Adrenaline/Epinephrine
a hormone and neurotransmitter that plays a role in the body’s fight-or-flight response, which is the body’s emergency response to danger
Dopamine
A neurotransmitter that makes you happy but does not satisfy you (wants more.)
Endocrine system
The endocrine system is a collection of glands that produce and secrete hormones, which are chemical messengers that regulate various bodily functions
Endorphins
The natural painkiller neurotransmitter. (Ex:Runners high)
GABA
GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid) is a key neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS) that plays a crucial role in regulating brain activity and mood
Ghrelin
Ghrelin is a hormone that plays a role in many bodily processes, including appetite, energy homeostasis, and sleep-wake rhythms
Glutamate
Glutamate is a key excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS)
Hormones
Hormones are chemical messengers produced by glands that travel through the bloodstream to influence various organs and tissues throughout the body
Leptin
Leptin is a hormone produced by fat cells (adipocytes) that plays a crucial role in regulating appetite, energy expenditure, and body weight
Melatonin
Melatonin is a hormone that helps regulate the body’s sleep cycle and circadian rhythms, which are the physical, mental, and behavioral changes that occur in a 24-hour cycle
Norepinephrine
is a neurotransmitter of the brain that plays an essential role in the regulation of arousal, attention, cognitive function, and stress reactions
Neurotransmitter
a chemical messenger molecule released by a neuron to transmit signals across a synapse, allowing communication between nerve cells and affecting various bodily functions like mood, movement, and cognition; essentially, they are the primary means for neurons to communicate with each other and other cells in the body
Oxytocin
Oxytocin is often referred to as the “love hormone” or “cuddle chemical” due to its association with feelings of trust, empathy, bonding, and attachment
Serotonin
Serotonin, also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), is a neurotransmitter and neuromodulator that plays a crucial role in various psychological and physiological functions
Substance P
Substance P is a neuropeptide, a small protein molecule that acts as a neurotransmitter in the central and peripheral nervous systems. It plays a crucial role in various psychological and physiological processes
Addiction
Addiction is a state of psychological and/or physical dependence on the use of drugs or other substances, such as alcohol, or on activities or behaviors, such as sex, exercise, and gambling
Agonists
a substance or molecule that binds to a receptor and activates it, producing a specific physiological or behavioral response
Alcohol
Alcohol, also known as ethanol, is a psychoactive substance that affects the central nervous system (CNS). It is a depressant, meaning it slows down brain activity
Antagonists
In psychology, an antagonist refers to a substance or force that opposes or inhibits the action of another substance or force
Caffeine
caffeine is defined as a central nervous system stimulant, a naturally occurring psychoactive substance that primarily increases alertness and wakefulness by speeding up brain activity
Depressants
Depressants are substances that slow down the central nervous system, resulting in an overall feeling of relaxation
Hallucinogens
Hallucinogens are psychedelic drugs that can potentially change the way people see, hear, taste, smell or feel, and also affect mood and thought
Heroin
Heroin is a depressant drug – it slows down certain functions of a person’s brain and nervous system. Some of the immediate effects of heroin include feelings of wellbeing and relief from physical pain
Marijuana
Marijuana is a mind-altering (psychoactive) drug, produced by the Cannabis sativa plant (hallucinogen)
Opioids
In psychology, “opioids” refer to a class of drugs derived from the opium poppy plant or synthesized in a lab, which interact with specific receptors in the brain to produce pain relief and feelings of euphoria (depressant)
Psychoactive drugs
Psychoactive drugs are substances that, when taken in or administered into one’s system, affect mental processes, e.g. perception, consciousness, cognition or mood and emotions
Stimulants
The term stimulants cover a broad class of drugs that increase the activity of the central nervous system
Tolerance
Tolerance refers to the way that someone who has become physically dependent on a substance (e.g. alcohol or heroin) no longer responds to it in the same way
Withdrawal
In psychology, withdrawal is the physical and mental symptoms that occur when someone stops or reduces their use of a substance that they are dependent on
Brain stem
The brainstem is a part of the brain that controls many vital functions, including breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, and sleep
Cerebellum
The cerebellum, also known as the “little brain,” is a large, complex brain structure located at the back of the brain, below the cerebrum. It plays a crucial role in motor coordination, balance, and posture
Medulla oblongata
In psychology, the “medulla oblongata” refers to the lowermost part of the brainstem, which is responsible for controlling vital involuntary functions like breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, swallowing, vomiting, and sneezing, essentially acting as the control center for basic life-sustaining processes; it is considered a key part of the autonomic nervous system and connects directly to the spinal cord
Pons
The pons is a part of the brainstem that plays a key role in many unconscious processes, including breathing, sleep-wake cycles, and sensory input
Reticular formation
The reticular formation (RF) is a network of neurons located in the brainstem that plays a crucial role in regulating consciousness, arousal, attention, and sleep-wake cycles
Amygdala
The amygdala is a pair of almond-shaped neural clusters located deep within the temporal lobes of the brain. It plays a crucial role in processing emotions, particularly fear, anxiety, and aggression
Hippocampus
The hippocampus is a crucial brain structure located in the temporal lobe that plays a vital role in memory, spatial navigation, and emotional processing
Hypothalamus
a small region of the brain that acts as a control center for vital bodily functions like body temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep-wake cycles, and sexual behavior, primarily by regulating hormone release through the pituitary gland, effectively linking the nervous system to the endocrine system; it plays a significant role in maintaining homeostasis and influencing emotional responses to stimuli
Limbic system
the limbic system refers to a group of interconnected brain structures located deep within the brain that are primarily responsible for processing emotions, memory, motivation, and behavior, essentially acting as the control center for our emotional responses and survival instincts
Pituitary gland
In psychology, the pituitary gland is referred to as a small, pea-sized gland located at the base of the brain, often called the “master gland” because it produces hormones that control the functions of many other glands throughout the body, regulating vital processes like growth, metabolism, and reproduction; it is closely linked to the hypothalamus in the brain which sends signals to trigger hormone release from the pituitary gland
Reward system
the reward system is a group of brain structures that process reward and are responsible for motivation, learning, and memory
Thalamus
a large, egg-shaped structure located deep within the brain that plays a crucial role in sensory processing, motor control, and consciousness
Association areas
regions of the cerebral cortex that are responsible for integrating and processing information from multiple sensory and motor areas
Broca’s area
the part of the brain that controls speech production and comprehension
Cerebral cortex
the outer layer of your brain’s surface, located on top of the cerebrum. The cerebral cortex carries out essential functions of your brain, like memory, thinking, learning, reasoning, problem-solving, emotions, consciousness, and sensory functions
Cerebrum
the largest part of your brain and handles conscious thoughts and actions. Different areas within your cerebrum also have different responsibilities like language, behavior, sensory processing and more
Executive functioning
Executive functions (also known as cognitive control and supervisory attentional system) is an umbrella term for the management (regulation, control) of cognitive processes, including working memory, reasoning, flexibility, and problem solving as well as planning and execution
Frontal lobes
home to areas that manage thinking, emotions, personality, judgment, self-control, muscle control and movements, memory storage and more
Motor cortex
a region of the cerebral cortex located in the frontal lobe that plays a crucial role in initiating and controlling voluntary movements. It is responsible for sending signals to the spinal cord, which then activates muscles to produce movement
Occipital lobes
The occipital lobe is the visual processing area of the brain. It is associated with visuospatial processing, distance and depth perception, color determination, object and face recognition, and memory formation
Parietal lobes
The parietal lobe is a major sensory processing hub for your brain. It also combines information from multiple senses into a usable form. In essence, it helps construct the way your brain understands the world around you
Prefrontal cortex
One of the last places in the brain to mature, the prefrontal cortex is thought of as the “personality center” and is the cortical region that makes us uniquely human. It is where we process moment-to-moment input from our surroundings, compare that input to past experiences, and then react to them
Somatosensory cortex
the part of the brain within the cerebral cortex that receives all sensory information from various parts of the body. It is part of the sensory system of the brain
Temporal lobes
Your temporal lobe is a part of your brain that helps you use your senses to understand and respond to the world around you
Wernicke’s area
Wernicke area, region of the brain that contains motor neurons involved in the comprehension of speech
Aphasia
Aphasia is a language disorder that affects how you communicate. It’s caused by damage in the area of the brain that controls language expression and comprehension. Aphasia leaves a person unable to communicate effectively with others
Aphasia- Broca’s
Broca aphasia is a non-fluent aphasia in which the output of spontaneous speech is markedly diminished and there is a loss of normal grammatical structure. Specifically, small linking words, conjunctions, such as and, or, and but, and the use of prepositions are lost
Aphasia-Wernicke’s
Wernicke’s aphasia, also known as receptive aphasia or fluent aphasia, is a language disorder that affects a person’s ability to understand and speak language
Contralateral control
Contralateral control is the arrangement in which the brain’s hemispheres control the opposite side of the body
Corpus callosum
The corpus callosum is a thick band of nerve fibers that connects the two cerebral hemispheres of the brain. It is the largest commissural structure in the brain, meaning it is responsible for interhemispheric communication
EEG
In psychology, an EEG is a non-invasive test that measures and records the electrical activity of the brain. It involves placing electrodes on the scalp to detect and amplify the tiny electrical signals generated by neurons (brain cells) as they communicate with each other
fMRI
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measures the small changes in blood flow that occur with brain activity. It may be used to examine which parts of the brain are handling critical functions, evaluate the effects of stroke or other disease, or to guide brain treatment
Hemispheric specialization
Hemispheric specialization refers to the phenomenon where the two hemispheres of the brain, left and right, tend to specialize in different cognitive functions
Lesion
a physical damage or disruption in an area of the brain or nervous system that affects cognitive, emotional, or behavioral functions
MRI
MRI is a non-invasive imaging technique that uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed pictures of the body’s internal structures, including the brain
Plasticity
Plasticity in psychology refers to the brain’s ability to change and adapt throughout life
Split brain research
“Split brain research” in psychology refers to the study of patients who have had their corpus callosum surgically severed, effectively separating the left and right hemispheres of the brain
Absolute threshold
the minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected by a sensory system half the time
Amplitude
Amplitude can describe two different concepts. In psychology, it can describe the magnitude or strength of a reaction or of a stimulus. For example, results from a study could be described as having a strong amplitude
Difference threshold
the minimum amount of change needed in stimuli in order for the subject to sense it 50% of the time
Intensity
In psychology, “intensity” refers to the degree or strength of an emotion, thought, or behavior
Just-noticeable difference
if we were asked to hold two objects of different weights, the just noticeable difference would be the minimum weight difference between the two that we could sense half of the time
Sensation
In psychology, sensation is the process of sensory organs receiving environmental stimuli and converting them into neurological impulses that the brain interprets as the five senses: vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch
Sensory adaptation
Sensory adaptation is the process by which the brain’s sensitivity to stimuli decreases after constant exposure
Sensory interaction
Sensory interaction is the process by which the five senses work together to influence each other and create a complete representation of the world around us
Synesthesia
a condition in which someone experiences things through their senses in an unusual way, for example by experiencing a color as a sound, or a number as a position in space
Transduction
The process by which the brain converts physical sensations into neural signals that can be processed. For example, the brain uses transduction to convert the feeling of light reflecting off an object into a neural signal. Transduction can also refer to the process of converting a specific thought into a general idea
Wavelength
the distance from one crest to another, or from one trough to another, of a wave
Weber’s law
a psychological principle that explains how people perceive changes in stimuli, such as sound or weight
Accommodation
In psychology, accommodation is the process of modifying existing cognitive schemas or creating new ones to incorporate new information or experiences
Afterimages
Afterimages are visual illusions that persist after the original stimulus has been removed
Blind spot
an area of unconscious bias or limited self-awareness that prevents an individual from recognizing or acknowledging their own flaws, shortcomings, or negative behaviors
Blindsight
a phenomenon in psychology where individuals who are cortically blind (meaning they have damage to the primary visual cortex) can still perform certain visual tasks, even though they are not consciously aware of seeing anything
Cones
photoreceptor cells located in the retina of the eye that play a crucial role in color vision
Dichromatism
a type of color vision deficiency where individuals have only two functioning cone cells in their eyes instead of the usual three
Farsightedness
an eye condition that causes people to see distant objects clearly while nearby objects appear blurry
Ganglion cells
Ganglion cells are specialized neurons located in the retina at the back of the eye. They receive signals from bipolar cells and transmit them through their axons, forming the optic nerve which carries visual information to the brain
Lens
In psychology, a “lens” refers to a specific perspective or framework through which we interpret and understand information. It represents the cognitive filters, biases, and experiences that shape our perceptions and judgments
Monochromatism
In psychology, monochromatism is characterized by monochromatic vision, where all colors are seen as different shades of the same color. People with monochromatism are called monochromats
Nearsightedness
Nearsightedness is a common vision condition in which close objects look clear but far objects look blurry
Opponent-process theory
a term coined in the field of psychology that explains how the primary or initial reaction to an emotional event will be subsequently followed by an opposite secondary emotional state
Optic nerve
The optic nerve is comprised of millions of nerve fibers that send visual messages to your brain to help you see. You have an optic nerve at the back of each eye that connects directly to your brain. Each optic nerve is a one-way connection, and it only carries signals from your eyes to your brain
Photoreceptors
Photoreceptors are specialized and light-sensitive cells found at the outermost layer of the eye’s retina. They are responsible for detecting and converting light into nerve impulses the human brain can process
Prosopagnosia
Prosopagnosia is an impairment in the ability to recognize faces and can be acquired after a brain lesion or occur as a developmental variant
Retina
The retina is the area in back of the eye that contains your rods and cones. Both of these receptors transfer light into electrical impulses so that your brain can interpret them
Rods
Rods help you detect movement while cones help you see color. Both of these receptors transfer light into electrical impulses so that your brain can interpret them
Trichromatic theory
The trichromatic theory of color vision says that human eyes only perceive three colors of light: red, blue, and green
Audition
the sense of hearing, which involves the detection, perception, and interpretation of sound waves
Basilar membrane
The basilar membrane is a key structure in the auditory system, located in the cochlea of the inner ear. It plays a crucial role in frequency discrimination, which is the ability to distinguish between sounds of different pitches
Cochlea
The cochlea is a fluid-filled, spiral-shaped cavity found in the inner ear that plays a vital role in the sense of hearing and participates in the process of auditory transduction
Conduction deafness
Conduction deafness is a type of hearing loss that occurs when sound waves are unable to pass through the outer or middle ear properly. This can be caused by various factors, such as earwax buildup, ear infections, or damage to the eardrum or ossicles (tiny bones in the middle ear)
Frequency
A frequency can be defined as how often something happens
Frequency theory
In psychology, “frequency theory” refers to a theory of hearing that proposes that the brain perceives the pitch of a sound based on the rate at which auditory nerve fibers fire
Inner ear
The inner ear is the part of the ear that converts sound waves into electrical signals that the brain interprets as sound and helps maintain balance
Middle ear
the part of the ear that converts sound waves into vibrations that are then sent to the inner ear
Pitch
the subjective attribute that allows sounds to be ordered on a musical scale
Place theory
a psychological theory that explains how people perceive pitch
Semicircular canals
The semicircular canals are part of the inner ear that help you sense the direction and speed of your head’s rotation. They are a key component of the vestibular sense, which contributes to balance and spatial orientation
Sensorineural deafness
Sensorineural deafness, also known as sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL), is a type of hearing loss that occurs when the inner ear, auditory nerve, or brain is damaged
Sound localization
In psychology, sound localization is defined as the ability of an organism to discover the location of something producing sound waves based on things like intensity and timing
Gate control theory
The Gate Control Theory of Pain is a mechanism, in the spinal cord, in which pain signals can be sent up to the brain to be processed to accentuate the possible perceived pain, or attenuate it at the spinal cord itself
Gustation
Gustation consists of the perception of sensations that are usually described as having 1 or more basic taste qualities: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, or umami (savory/brothy)
Kinesthesis
Kinesthesis is the perception of body movements and detecting changes in body position and movements
Oleogustus
In its true form, fat is considered to be a very unpleasant flavour—similar to the taste of rancid food.
Olfactory system
an evolutionarily ancient sensory system used for olfaction, i.e., a sense of smell,
Phantom limb
the phantom syndrome at initial stages can cause the psychological stress, anxiety, hallucinations, depression, attention deficit, over-vigilance, and emotional disturbance
Pheromones
Pheromones are defined as substances which are secreted to the outside by an individual and received by a second individual of the same species, in which they release a specific reaction, for example, a definite behavioral or a developmental process
Supertasters
a person who tastes certain flavors and foods more strongly than other people
Taste receptors
Taste receptors are proteins that recognize taste stimuli of various types
Vestibular sense
The vestibular sense, also known as the labyrinthine sense, is our experience of motion and balance
Volley theory
Volley theory states that groups of neurons of the auditory system respond to a sound by firing action potentials slightly out of phase with one another so that when combined, a greater frequency of sound can be encoded and sent to the brain to be analyzed
Warm/cold receptors (temperature sense)
a receptor or sense organ that is activated by cold or warm stimuli
