Psych Vocab Cards Part 3 Flashcards
1
Q
Apparent movement
A
A sensation of movement in a context where neither the observer nor the stimulus are physically moving
2
Q
Attention
A
notice taken of something or someone; the regarding of someone or something
3
Q
Binocular depth cues
A
the images taken in by both eyes to give depth perception, or stereopsis
4
Q
Bottom-up processing
A
when the brain processes sensory information and uses clues to understand stimuli
5
Q
Change blindness
A
a perceptual phenomenon that occurs when a change in a visual stimulus is introduced and the observer does not notice it
6
Q
Cocktail party effect
A
our ability to attend to one voice at a cocktail party out of many voices and other competing sounds sources
6
Q
Closure
A
the tendency for individuals to perceive incomplete or fragmented patterns as complete and whole
7
Q
Convergence
A
how the brain combines different sensory information — like what we see, hear, and feel — to understand and interpret our surroundings
8
Q
Figure and ground
A
the tendency of the visual system to simplify a scene into the main object we are looking at (the figure) and everything else that forms the background (or ground)
9
Q
Gestalt psychology
A
Gestalt psychology suggests that humans don’t focus on separate components but instead tend to perceive objects as elements of more complex systems
10
Q
Inattentional blindness
A
he failure of a person to realize something in their visual eye or line of sight because they were so intently focused on something else
11
Q
Interposition
A
a type of monocular cue in which one object partially obscures or covers another object, giving the perception the object that is partially covered is farther away
12
Q
Linear perspective
A
a type of depth prompt that the human eye perceives when viewing two parallel lines that appear to meet at a distance
13
Q
Monocular depth cues
A
depth cues that can be perceived by one eye alone. They include interposition, relative height, relative motion, linear perspective, relative size, and light and shadow
14
Q
Perceptual Set
A
a predisposition to perceive or notice some aspects of the available sensory data and ignore others
15
Q
Proximity
A
objects that are close together are more likely to be perceived as belonging in the same group
16
Q
Relative clarity
A
Because light from distant. objects passes through more light than closer objects, we perceive hazy objects to be farther away than those objects that appear sharp and clear
17
Q
Relative size
A
the depth cue in which we perceive distance based on the comparison of sizes between objects
18
Q
Retinal disparity
A
a binocular cue used to perceive depth between two near objects
19
Q
Schema
A
the cognitive framework that allows a person to interpret a new situation based on their experience in similar, prior experiences.
20
Q
Selective attention
A
allows one to focus on certain specific sensory information, while ignoring other sensory input
21
Q
Similarity
A
how much two people share common attitudes, backgrounds, interests or other characteristics
22
Q
Texture gradient
A
A gradual change from a coarse, distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture signals increasing distance
23
Q
Top-down processing
A
perceiving things based on your prior experiences and knowledge
24
Accommodation
a term developed by psychologist Jean Piaget to describe what occurs when new information or experiences cause you to modify your existing schemas
25
Algorithms
A step-by-step procedure or formula for solving a problem
26
Assimilation
a cognitive process that manages how we take in new information and incorporate that new information into our existing knowledge
27
Availability heuristic
a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision
28
Convergent thinking
focuses on reaching one well-defined solution to a problem
29
Creativity
the ability to produce or develop original work, theories, techniques, or thoughts
30
Divergent thinking
utilizing the mind in inventive, free-flowing ways to solve a given problem and find multiple creative solutions
31
Executive functions
refers to mental processes (executive functioning skills) that help you set and carry out goals
32
Framing
whether an option is presented as a loss (negative) or a gain (positive)
33
Functional fixedness
a cognitive bias that negatively affects a person's ability to problem-solve and innovate
34
Gambler's fallacy
a failure to recognize the independence of chance events, leading to the mistaken belief that one can predict the outcome of a chance event on the basis of the outcomes of past chance events
35
Heuristics
problem-solving methods that are based on practical experience and knowledge
36
Mental set
the brain's tendency to stick with the most familiar solution to a problem and stubbornly ignore alternatives
37
Priming
occurs when an individual's exposure to a certain stimulus influences their response to a subsequent prompt, without any awareness of the connection
38
Prototypes
a mental representation of the idealized form of an object or concept
39
Representativeness heuristic
a mental shortcut that we use when estimating probabilities
40
Sunk-cost fallacy
the tendency for people to continue an endeavor or course of action even when abandoning it would be more beneficial
41
Automatic processing
a type of thinking or cognition that does not involve any effort or deliberation
42
Central executive
responsible for controlled processing in working memory, including but not limited to, directing attention, maintaining task goals, decision making, and memory retrieval
43
Deep encoding
occurs when we process information semantically, by associating it with emotion, idea or previous knowledge
44
Echoic memory
the brief sensory memory of audible sounds
45
Effortful processing
encoding information through conscious attention and effort
46
Encoding
the conversion of a sensory input into a form capable of being processed and deposited in memory
47
Episodic memory
the ability to learn, store, and retrieve information about unique personal experiences that occur in daily life
48
Iconic memory
a type of short-term sensory memory in which one can recall visual images for just a few milliseconds after the physical image has disappeared
49
Implicit memory
the memory for information that is expressed unconsciously or automatically through improved performance on related tasks, without the need for explicit recall
50
Levels of processing model (Craik & Lockhart)
counters the idea that mere repetition helps us retain information long-term
51
Long-term memory
the stage of the Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model in which informative knowledge is held indefinitely
52
Long-term potentiation
a long-lasting increase in synaptic efficacy following high-frequency stimulation of afferent fibers
53
Multi-store model (Atkinson & Shiffrin)
a theoretical framework that explains how information is processed and stored in our memory
54
Phonemic processing
The ability to store and recall the sounds of speech in short term memory
55
Phonological loop
the speech- and sound-related component of working memory and holds verbal and auditory information
56
Primary memory system
the part of the computer that stores current data, programmes, and instructions
57
Procedural memory
is a type of long-term memory involved in the performance of different actions and skills
58
Prospective memory
It refers to remembering to carry out an action at an appropriate future moment whereas retrospective memory refers to remembering information about the past
59
Retrieval
The act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness is known as retrieval
60
Semantic processing
Semantic processing refers to the ability of the brain to store and access the meanings of words and their changes. It involves the perception, action, and affective systems of the brain, with supramodal representations capturing conceptual similarities that define semantic categories
61
Semantic memory
the memory system responsible for the long-term storage of general knowledge about the world, including knowledge about words and their meaning, facts, and concepts
62
Sensory memory
a mental representation of how environmental events look, sound, feel, smell and taste
63
Shallow encoding
when information is encoded structurally, by the way it appears, or phonemically, by the way it sounds
64
Storage
the creation of a permanent record of information
65
Structural processing
when we remember only the physical quality of the word
66
Visuospatial sketchpad
our ability temporarily to hold visual and spatial information, such as the location of a parked car, or the route from home to a grocery store
67
Working memory
a type of short-term memory that stores information temporarily during the completion of cognitive tasks, such as comprehension, problem solving, reasoning, and learning
68
Working memory model (Baddeley & Fitch)
a prominent cognitive theory explaining how we hold and manipulate information in the short term
69
Categorical classification
relies on specific diagnostic criteria and severity cutoffs to determine maladaptive emotional and behavioral states
70
Chunking
the process by which the brain divides significant details into more minor units (chunks), making them easier to retain in short-term memory
71
Distributed practice
a computational model where processing tasks are divided among multiple systems or nodes that work concurrently to solve a problem
72
Encoding
the conversion of a sensory input into a form capable of being processed and deposited in memory
73
Hierarchies
systems where individuals or concepts are ranked one above another based on specific criteria
74
Massed practice
a learning procedure in which practice periods for an activity are not separated by any rest periods or are separated by short rest periods only
75
Memory consolidation
the process by which the brain turns short-term memories into long-term memories
76
Method of loci
a strategy for memory enhancement, which uses visualizations of familiar spatial environments in order to enhance the recall of information
77
Mnemonic devices
any learning technique that aids information retention or retrieval in the human memory, often by associating the information with something that is easier to remember
78
Primacy effect
the tendency to recall information presented at the start of a list better than information at the middle or end
79
Recency effect
a cognitive bias in which those items, ideas, or arguments that came last are remembered more clearly than those that came first
80
Serial position effect
the psychological tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than those in the middle
81
Spacing effect
the finding that long-term memory is enhanced when learning events are spaced apart in time, rather than massed in immediate succession
82
Alzheimer's disease
a brain disorder that slowly destroys memory and thinking skills and, eventually, the ability to carry out the simplest tasks
83
Amnesia
the loss of memories, including facts, information and experiences
84
anterograde amnesia
when your brain can't form new memories from what you're experiencing right now
85
autobiographical memory
the aspect of memory that is concerned with the coherent and integrated recollection of personally experienced past events contributing to an individual's sense of self
86
elaborative rehearsal
a technique to help the short-term memory store thoughts and ideas and pass them into the long-term memory
87
Infantile amnesia
infantile or childhood amnesia is the inability of human adults to remember episodic experiences that occurred during the first few years of life
88
long-term memory
the encoding, maintenance and retrieval of information over periods of time
89
Maintenance rehearsal
the process of repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about a piece of information
90
Memory retention
the ability to remember information over time
91
Rehearsal
In this sense rehearsal means the mental repetition of incoming information
92
Retrograde amnesia
a neurological condition characterized by the inability to recall events, information, or experiences that occurred before the onset of the amnesia
93
Sensory memory
a mental representation of how environmental events look, sound, feel, smell and taste
94
Short-term memory
recall of material immediately after it is presented or during uninterrupted rehearsal of the material
95
Working memory
a type of short-term memory that stores information temporarily during the completion of cognitive tasks, such as comprehension, problem solving, reasoning, and learning
96
Context-dependent memory
the storage and retrieval of memory are influenced by the environment in which it was learned or remembered
97
Metacognition
Metacognition is, put simply, thinking about one's thinking. More precisely, it refers to the processes used to plan, monitor, and assess one's understanding and performance
98
Mood-congruent memory
a psychological phenomenon that explains how a person is able to recall a memory in more detail if it coincides with their mood at the current time
99
Recall
the act of retrieving information or events from the past while lacking a specific cue to help in retrieving the information
100
Recognition
a form of remembering characterized by a feeling of familiarity when something previously experienced is again encountered
101
Retrieval
The act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness
102
Retrieval cues
Retrieval cues are stimuli that assist in memory retrieval. In other words, retrieval cues help you access memories stored in long-term memory and bring them to your conscious awareness
103
State-dependent memory
a state that the retrieval of recently obtained information may be potential if the subject exists in a similar physiological situation as for the period of the encoding stage
104
Testing effect
suggests long-term memory is increased when part of the learning period is devoted to retrieving information from memory
105
Constructive memory
memories may not be accurate reproductions of events but can be altered by new information related to beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions to fill in gaps in the memory
106
Encoding failure
Encoding failure is a cognitive phenomenon that occurs when information fails to be effectively transferred and stored in the memory system due to insufficient or inadequate processing during the encoding stage
107
Forgetting curve
The forgetting curve hypothesizes the decline of memory retention in time
108
Imagination inflation
an increased tendency to falsely remember that an item has been seen, or an action has been performed, when it has only been imagined
109
Memory consolidation
the process by which the brain turns short-term memories into long-term memories
110
Misinformation effect
the tendency for the information you learned after an event to interfere with your original memory of what happened
111
Proactive interference
occurs when old information or knowledge interferes with the learning of new information
112
Repression
the unconscious blocking of unpleasant emotions, impulses, memories, and thoughts from your conscious mind.
113
Retroactive interference
when new information causes someone to forget old information
114
Source amnesia
the inability to remember where, when or how previously learned information has been acquired, while retaining the factual knowledge
115
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
a state in which one cannot quite recall a familiar word but can recall words of similar form and meaning
116
Achievement tests
any measurement process or instrument whose purpose is to estimate an examinee's degree of attainment of specified knowledge or skills
117
Aptitude tests
evaluates your potential to succeed in a certain area by looking at your strengths and weaknesses in particular abilities
118
Chronological age
a measure of an individual's age based on the calendar date on which he or she was born
119
Construct validity
the extent to which your test or measure accurately assesses what it's supposed to
120
Fixed mindset
the belief that abilities are innate and unchangeable
121
Flynn Effect
The Flynn effect (FE) is a generational phenomenon in which average Intelligence Quotient (IQ) scores have been found to increase across time in developed countries at a startlingly consistent rate of approximately 0.33 points per year, or 3.3 points per decade
122
g(general intelligence)
the existence of a broad mental capacity that influences performance on cognitive ability measures
123
Growth mindset
the belief that a person's intelligence and abilities can grow and improve with practice
124
Intelligence
the ability to learn from and adapt to novel situations and to use that knowledge to create a desired outcome
125
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
a measure of a person's reasoning ability
126
Mental age
a measure used in psychological testing that expresses an individual's mental attainment in terms of the number of years it takes an average child to reach the same level
127
Predictive validity
the extent to which a measure or test accurately predicts future behavior, performance, or outcomes
128
Reliability
Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. Psychologists consider three types of consistency: over time (test-retest reliability), across items (internal consistency), and across different researchers (inter-rater reliability)
129
Split-half reliability
A measure of consistency where a test is split in two and the scores for each half of the test is compared with one another
130
Standardization
the process of establishing norms for a test
131
Stereotype lift
an increase in a group's test performance due to not being part of a negative stereotype
132
Stereotype threat
the risk of confirming negative stereotypes about an individual's racial, ethnic, gender, or cultural group which can create high cognitive load and reduce academic focus and performance
133
Test-retest reliability
a measure of reliability obtained by administering the same test twice over a period of time to a group of individuals
134
Validity
assumes that the test in question measures precisely what it aims to measure, meaning the data collected is accurate and represents some truth compared to others outside of the study
