psych (unit 1) exam flashcards
what are the 3 main functions of the nervous system?
- to recieve info
- to process info
- to respond to info
what does c.n.s. stand for?
central nervous system
what does p.n.s. stand for?
peripheral nervous system
what are the parts of the c.n.s?
- spinal cord
- brain
what are the parts of the p.n.s?
- somatic nervous system
- autonomic nervous system (a.n.s)
what are the parts of the a.n.s?
- sympathetic nervous system
- parasympathetic nervous system
what is the function of the c.n.s.?
central to all our mental processes + behaviours.
it processes info received through sensory systems and activates appropriate actions.
what is the brain?
intricate network of cells that play an important role in processing info received through nerve pathways, and directing responses.
what is the spinal cord?
long, thin bundle of nerve tissue that extends from the base of the brain to the lower back. receives sensory neurons from the body and sends it to the brain. receives motor neurons from the brain and sends it to the body.
what are afferent neurons also known as?
sensory neurons
what are efferent neurons also known as?
motor neurons
what is a spinal reflex?
involuntary movement that occurs in response to certain stimuli without the involvement of the brain.
how does a spinal reflex occur?
- touch something hot
- nerves send a message via sensory neurons to CNS (spinal cord).
- spinal cord sends immediately sends motor neuron to the muscle in your arm/hand to contract from source of harm.
- whilst this is happening, the sensory neuron sends a message to the brain which becomes aware of the stimulus and triggers the reaction of pain.
what is the somatic nervous system?
network of nerves that carry sensory info to the CNS and motor info from the CNS.
what is the autonomic nervous system?
network of nerves that carries messages between the CNS and the heart, lungs + other internal organs/glands.
what is the sympathetic nervous system?
arouses the body when we experience an extreme emotion (fight/flight)
what is the parasympathetic nervous system?
calms of restores the body to its normal state (rest/digest)
what is a dendrite?
thin extension of the neuron that recieves information from other neurons and transmits info to the soma.
what is the soma?
the cell body of the neuron that combines neural info received from many dendrites and sends info to the axon.
what is the axon?
single, tube-like extension of a neuron that transmits neural information away from the soma to other neurons.
what is myelin?
a white, fatty substance that coats a neuron’s axon and insulate it from the activity of other nearby axons.
what are the nodes of ranvier?
small gaps on a neuron’s axon in which myelin is missing. these increase the speed of the action.
what are the axon terminals?
located at the end of an axon, these contain a synaptic button which secretes a neurotransmitter across the gap between the end of one neuron and the beginning of another (known as the synaptic gap).
what are glial cells?
specialised cells located in both nervous systems that surround neurons to support them in neural functioning.
what is the hindbrain? what parts does this include?
a collection of lower level brain structures including the cerebellum, medulla + pons.
what is the role of the cerebellum?
coordinates fine muscle movements + regulates posture and balance. damage to this makes muscle control coordination difficult.
cerebellum – movement
what is the role of the medulla?
continuation of the spinal cord: controls vital bodily functions such as swallowing, breathing, heart rate, etc .
medulla – vital
what is the role of the pons?
involved in sleep, dreaming + waking. connects other parts of the brain together by relaying messages between the cerebral cortex + cerebellum, and between the medulla + midbrain.
pons – sleep + relay
what is the midbrain? what does it include?
receives lots of information from the ears + eyes and processes this to help produce orienting movements (reticular formation)
what is the role of the reticular formation?
screens incoming information so the brain doesn’t overload. it alerts higher brain centres of important information, and helps maintain consciousness.
reticular formation – screen + alert
what is the forebrain? what does it include?
collection of upper level structures that regulates complex cognitive processes, emotion + personality. it includes the hypothalamus, thalamus and the cerebrum.
what is the role of the hypothalamus?
maintain’s the body’s internal environment, regulates the release of hormones, and influences behaviours associated with basic biological needs.
hypothalamus – biological
what is the role of the thalamus?
filters information from all sense receptor sites (except the nose) and sends it to relevant areas of the brain for further processing. it filters vast amounts of incoming sensory information.
thalamus – filter
what is the role of the cerebrum?
consists of an outer cerebral cortex + masses of neural tissue where neurons form connections with each other. divided into two cerebral hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum.
define hemispheric specialisation.
the idea that one hemisphere has specialised functions over the other (hemispheric dominance)
name some hemispheric specialisations of the right hemisphere.
- recieves + processes sensations from the LEFT side of the body
- control voluntary movements on LEFT side of body
- spatial + visual thinking
- recognising emotions
- appreciation of art + music
name some hemispheric specialisations of the left hemisphere.
- recieves + processes sensations from the RIGHT side of the body
- control voluntary movements on the RIGHT side of body
- verbal tasks
- analysis
- logical reasoning
define cortical lobes.
four areas of the cerebral cortex associated with different functions.
where is the frontal lobe located?
on the left side of the brain.
what is the role of the premotor cortex? what cortical lobe is it located in?
the premotor cortex is located in the frontal lobe. it is responsible for planning appropriate movement and sending information to the primary motor cortex.
what is the role of the primary motor cortex? what cortical lobe is it located in?
the primary motor cortex is located in the frontal lobe. it is responsible for initiating and controlling voluntary movements through it’s control of skeletal muscles.
what is the role of the prefrontal cortex? what cortical lobe is it located in?
the prefrontal cortex is located in the frontal lobe. it is responsible for sophisticated mental abilities including reasoning, planning, problem solving, symbolic thinking, and emotional reaction.
what is the role of broca’s area? what cortical lobe is it located in?
broca’s area is located in the left frontal lobe. it is involved with the production of articulate speech.
where is the parietal lobe located?
at the top of the brain.
what is the role of the parietal lobe?
receiving and processing somatosensory information.
define somatosensory.
relating to a sensation (pressure, pain, warmth) which can occur anywhere in the body in contrast to one only occurring at a sense organ.
what is the role of the primary somatosensory cortex? what cortical lobe is it located in?
the primary somatosensory cortex is located in the parietal lobe. it is responsible for receiving + processing sensory information from the skin + body parts.
where is the occipital lobe located?
at the back of the brain.
what is the role of the occipital lobe?
the occipital lobe is almost exclusively devoted to the sense of vision.
what is the role of the primary visual cortex? what cortical lobe is it located in?
the primary visual cortex is located in the occipital lobe. it is a major destination for visual information from the two eyes.
where is the temporal lobe located?
at the bottom of the brain.
what is the role of the temporal lobe?
the temporal lobe is involved with auditory perception, plays an important role in memory, plays a role in visual perception, and provides emotional responses to sensory information + memories.
what is the role of the primary auditory cortex? what cortical lobe is it located in?
the primary auditory cortex is located in the temporal lobe. it is responsible for receiving + processing sounds from both ears to perceive and identify different types of sounds.
what is the role of wernicke’s area? what cortical lobe is it located in?
wernicke’s area is located in the temporal lobe. it is involved in the comprehension of speech.
define brain injury.
brain damage that impairs or interferes with the normal functioning of the brain, either temporarily or permanent.
what happened to phineas gage?
in 1848, railway worker phineas gage had a metal rod go through the top of his skull in an accident. he survived, but suffered major changes in his functioning.
biological changes to phineas gage
problems with motor activities and reduction in movement.
psychological changes to phineas gage
emotional changes including apathy, impulsive behaviour, disregard for social convention or the past/future.
social changes to phineas gage
breakdown in personal relationships. becam aggressive + irresponsible.
define plasticity.
the ability of the brain to change in response to experience.
when does plasticity occur?
in response to experience.
- in response to aging + the learnings associated with maturation (developmental plasticity)
- in response to a need to adapt, eg. brain trauma and injury (adaptive plasticity)
what does developmental plasticity involve?
- myelination
- synaptogenesis
- synaptic pruning
what is myelination? in what order does it occur?
the production of myelin allows neurons to be more efficient in sending messages to other neuons. it usually starts in the hindbrain, then the midbrain, then forebrain.
what is synaptogenesis?
the formation of new synapses between the brain’s neurons (growth of dendrites).
what is synaptic pruning? when is there a burst in synaptic pruning?
weak or unused neural connections are eliminated. there is a burst in synaptic pruning during adolescence, stabilising. around age 30.
why is the prefrontal cortex special?
it is the very last part of the brain to fully develop. adolescent behaviour is usually the result of this slow development.
what does adaptive plasticity involve?
the ability of the brain to compensate for lost function in the event of brain injury.
what are the two aspects involved in adaptive plasticity?
- rerouting
- sprouting
what is the role of rerouting in adaptive plasticity?
an undamaged neuron that has lost a connection with a neuron may seek a new active neuron to connect with.
what is the role of sprouting in adaptive plasticity?
growth of additional branches on axons/dendrites to enable new connections.
what does split-brain surgery involve? what does it treat?
split brain surgery is a treatment for epilepsy which involves cutting the corpus callosum.
what did roger sperry find out about split brain surgery?
whilst patients reported no impairment of brain function, sperry found otherwise. he found that:
- images shown in the right visual field were processed in the left hemisphere, can be verbalised.
- images shown in the left visual field were processed in the right hemisphere, cannot be verbalised.
what is parkinson’s disease?
progressive neurodegenerative disorder containing both motor and non-motor symptoms. it has no known cause.
how does parkinson’s disease occur?
neurons slowly decline in the substantia nigra. this part of the brain produces a neurotransmitter called dopamine (planning, initiation + coordination of voluntary movement). insufficient levels of dopamine are produced.
what are some motor symptoms of parkinson’s disease?
- tremors (resting + action)
- muscle rigidity
- slowness of movement
- postural instability
what are some non-motor symptoms of parkinson’s disease?
- speech problems
- pain + discomfort in arm/leg
- tiredness
- constipation
- mental health problems
- slowness in thinking, planning and decision making
when and how is parkinson’s disease diagnosed?
the average age of diagnosis is 55-65 years of age. the diagnosis is based on symptoms, a neurological examination and review of past medical history.
how is parkinson’s disease treated?
there is no known cure.
- medication can restore dopamine deficiency and relieve motor symptoms
- levodopa (chemical medication) is converted into dopamine by the neurons in the brain, although side effects include nausea, restlessness, sleep problems, low blood pressure.
- deep brain stimulation of the substantia nigra. major risks such as death.
what are the 6 approaches to describe normal + abnormal behaviour?
- socio-cultural approach
- functional approach (considered normal is able to cope with functioning normally in society)
- historical approach
- medical approach
- statistical approach
- situational approach
spunky fish hits man sitting stationary.
define mental health.
a state of well-being in which an individual can cope with normal stresses of life and can work productively.
what does the term “mentally healthy” refer to?
a psychological state that maintains or improves functioning.
what does the term “mental health problem” refer to?
a temporary state markedly impairing levels of functioning.
what does the term “mental health problem” refer to?
a temporary state markedly impairing levels of functioning.
what does the term “mental health disorder” refer to?
more enduring and diagnosable then a mental health problem.
what are the states of mental health known as being represented by?
a mental health continuum.
what is the biopsychosocial model?
a diagram that describes + explains how biological, psychological + social factors combine + interact to influence a person’s mental health.
what is schizophrenia?
a psychotic disorder characterised by the presence of longer-term psychosis and impairment to functioning.
what are some symptoms of schizophrenia?
- hallucinations
- reduced expression of emotions
- delusions
- disorganised speech
what are some biological causes of schizophrenia?
- genetic links
- reduced activity in prefrontal cortex
- less grey matter in frontal + temporal lobes
- lower activity of neurotransmitters
what are some psychological causes of schizophrenia?
- stress
- cognitive impairments
- memory problems
what are some social causes of schizophrenia?
- negative family environment
- dysfunctional parenting
- disturbed family communication styles
- parenting style that makes the child feel guilty
what is the two-hit hypothesis?
a framework used to explain how schizophrenia results from the combination of both genetic and environmental factors.
what are some treatments of schizophrenia?
- medical treatment
- psychotherapy (CBT)
- social support
what is the nature/nurture debate?
belief that either hereditary/environmental factors made a person unique.
what are monozygotic twins?
identical twins (share 100% of genes)
what are dizygotic twins?
fraternal twins (share 50% of genes)
why are twin studies helpful in studying similarities and differences in people?
researching heredity and environmental influences is difficult as it is impossible to isolate an individual from all environmental factors in order to determine if genetics has a greater influence. because twins share similar genes, psychologists can learn about the effects of environmental factors.
what is adoption studies?
this study looks at the impact of nurture on children who are raised by parents who are not their biological parents.
who is mary ainsworth?
american psychologist who assessed the implications of different attachment styles on psychological development. she developed the “strange situation” procedure to assess infant attachment.
what are the four types of attachment?
- secure
- insecure avoidant
- insecure resistant
- insecure disorganised
what is secure attachment?
balance between dependence on caregiver and independence to explore alone.
what is insecure avoidant attachment?
infant does not seek closeness/contact with caregiver. unresponsive both ways.
what is insecure resistant attachment?
infant is anxious when caregiver is near and also when they are separated from caregiver.
what is insecure disorganised attachment
when caregiver shows affection, infant pulls away, often showing fear. abusive/neglectful caregiver.
what was harlow’s experiments on attachment in monkeys?
to investigate if the provision of food or comfort was more important.
what happened in harlow’s experiments on monkeys?
2 groups of monkeys were isolated in cages. one group had one cloth surrogate mother provided food whilst the wire surrogate mother did not, and vice versa for the other group of monkeys.
results of harlow’s experiments on monkeys
all monkeys in both groups 1 + 2 spent far more time with their cloth surrogate than they did with their wire surrogate, regardless of which provided food.
what are the four stages of piaget’s stages of cognitive development?
- sensorimotor stage
- pre-operational stage
- concrete operational stage
- formal operational stage
what age range is the sensorimotor stage?
ages 0-2
what age range is the pre-operational stage?
ages 2-7
what age range is the concrete operational stage?
ages 7-12
what age range is the formal operational stage?
ages 12+
what is the sensorimotor stage?
during this stage, infants construct their understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motor abilities.
what is the pre-operational stage?
during this stage, children begin to understand how objects, events + ideas can be represented using images + symbols, as well as developing additional skills such as acquiring language.
what is the concrete operational stage?
during this stage, children are able to make representations of, organise, and understand concepts in a more complex + accurate manner. (not abstract or hypothetical concepts)
what is the formal operational stage?
during this stage, thought is more complex + sophisticated, and child is able to use reasoning.
what are some key accomplishments of the sensorimotor stage?
- object permanence (understanding that objects still exist even if they cannot be seen/heard/felt)
- goal directed behaviour (ability to behave to meet the demands of a goal purposefully set out.)
what are some key accomplishments of the pre-operational stage?
- symbolic thinking (ability to use symbols to represent objects/people/things)
- overcoming egocentrism (ability to see things from another point of view)
- reversibility (understanding that objects can experience change and return to original form)
- overcoming centration (focusing on only one feature of an object)
what are some key accomplishments of the concrete operational stage?
- conservation (ability to understand that object’s properties remain when object’s appearance alters.)
- classification (ability to organise information based on common features.)
what are some key accomplishments of the formal operational stage?
- abstract thinking (ability to consider concepts/ideas that are not concrete.)
- use of reasoning + logic (able to consider problem/scenario and accurately consider possible pathways.)
