Psych/Soc Flashcards
_______________
- smallest magnitude of a stimulus identifiable 50% of the time
Sensory threshold
_______________
- Smallest noticeable change in baseline stimulus
Just noticeable difference (jnd)
_______________ law
- The just noticeable difference between a baseline stimulus level & a new level varies in proportion to the baseline stimulus
- Turning a low sound up 1 db is more noticeable than turning a loud sound up 1db
Webers law
_______________ theory
- competing stimuli interfere with the ability to identify the presence or absence of a target stimulus
Signal detection theory
_______________
- under continued or extreme stimulation, sensory receptors undergo physiological changes that affect the degree of sensitivity
Sensory adaptation
_______________ theory
- brain processes sense input in multiple ways at 1 time
Parallel processing theory
_______________ system
- complex system integrating many bodily sensations (temperature, touch, proprioception, pain)
Somatosensory system
_______________
- awareness of body position
Proprioception
_______________
- identifies body positioning & movement
Kinesthetic sense
_______________
- responsible for balance & orientation
Vestibular system
_______________
- registered through chemoreceptors & taste buds
Taste
_______________
- registered through chemoreceptors & olfactory cells
Smell
_______________
- excreted chemical compounds that elicit a specific response (species specific)
-EX: mark territories, signal food trails, warn of danger, indicate sexual receptivity, & increase maternal bond
Pheromones
_______________
- interpretation of the information received from senses
Perception
_______________
- allows perception of an object in a consistent way
Perceptual constancy
_______________
- ability to determine how far away an object is
Depth perception
_______________
- allows perception of visual outlines as constituting an object regardless of changes in size, shape, & environment
Form constancy
_______________
- visual cues & vestibular senses determine if an object is moving
Motion
_____________ principles
- The brain organizes small bits of information into larger patterns
Gestalt principles
_______________ processing
- using small bits of information to develop a larger picture
Bottom-up processing
_______________ processing
- incorporating experience, knowledge, & expectations to interpret lower-level bits of information
Top-down processing
_______________
- a state of focused awareness on a given set of stimuli
Attention
_____________ attention
- The process of filtering out extraneous stimuli to direct attention onto the object of interest
Selective attention
_____________ attention
- placing attention onto more than 1 objects simultaneously such that the attention to each object is diminished
Divided attention
_______________
- the ability to take in, process, store, & retrieve information
- development has predictable childhood & adolescent stages
Cognition
_______________ theory
- stages of cognitive development
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete operational
Formal operational
Piaget’s theory
____________ vs. ____________
- both act on a child’s cognitive development
Environment
Heredity
Cognitive changes in _______________
- diminished ability to process information (verbal meaning, spatial orientation, inductive reasoning, number ability, word fluency, short-term & long-term memory)
Late adulthood
_____________effects cognitive development
- cognitive development occurs in a cultural context (influences development, problem-solving abilities, & values)
Culture
_______________
- The mental processes involved in identifying, analyzing, & resolving problems
Problem solving
_______________
- applies learned strategies & intuitive insights to a current problem
Trial & Error
_______________
- uses specific steps that consistently lead to success
Algorithm
_______________
- a highly simplified general rule of thumb
- effective if used correctly
- ineffective if overgeneralized
Heuristic
__________________ theory
- problem solving encompasses current state of affairs, desired state of affairs, & all possible options in between
Problem space theory
_______________
- behaviors that were successful in the past are likely to be repeated even if unsuccessful in a current situation
Law of effect
__________ to effective problem solving
- valid strategy applied incorrectly, ineffective strategy, inefficiency, false assumptions, irrelevant information, absence of rational thought, & functional fixedness
Barriers
_______________
- automatic preferences for a specific action
- often unconscious
- may block rational thoughts
Biases
__________ & ______ can override logic and rational thought processes
Intuition & Emotion
____________ & __________ can result in refusal to abandon a belief in the face of evidence against it
Overconfidence & belief perseverance
_______________
- measurable state of awareness of environment
Alertness
_______________
- reduced sensory perception & muscle tension
- contains stages & cycles
- dreaming
Sleep
Stages ________ are non-REM sleep
Stages ________ is REM sleep
1-4
5
Sleep cycles are stages 1-5 with the 1st cycle being 70-100 mins while subsequent cycles become __________
Longer
True or false
Dreaming occur most often during REM sleep while dreaming in non-REM is mostly forgotten
True
_______________
- alertness, physically still, & open to sensing stimuli
- multiple benefits
Meditation
_______________
- reduced state of consciousness with increased focus is attention & increased susceptibility to suggestion
- multiple therapeutic applications
Hypnosis
_______________
- biological regulation occurring in 24hr cycles
- influenced by environments & behavior
Circadian rhythms
_______________
- ability to learn, be flexible in, & adapt to new situations
- capacity for abstract thinking
Intelligence
__________ & __________ can both influence intelligence
Heredity & Environment
_______________
- genetic markers in 3 chromosomes
- twin studies & adoption studies document influence of heredity
Heredity
_______________
- influences are family of origin, education, economics, race, gender, & academic enrichment
- high-quality communication from 0-3yrs & early education programs also have an impact
Environment
IQ score of 70 or lower = ______________
IQ score of 130 or greater = _____________
Intellectual disability or intellectual development disorder
Gifted
_______________
- encoding & storage of information to be retrieved later
Memory
_______________
- process by which sensory information is converted into stored memory
Encoding
_______________
- includes sensory memory, short-term memory, working memory, & long-term memory
- semantic network (web of interrelated facts) or spreading activation (retrieval enhanced with contextual information)
Storage
Retrieval can be from ____________ or ____________
Short term or Long term
Types of retrieval include __________, __________, & __________ (retrieval cues enhance ability to access a memory)
Recall
Recognition
Relearning
_______________
- pathological memory loss that disrupts functioning
Memory dysfunction
Aging & Memory
- forgetfulness especially after age ______
- deficiencies in processing new memories, in binding information in memory, & in retrieval associations
65 years
True or false
Procedural & emotionally imprinted memory & semantic knowledge are not affected with aging memory loss
True
_______________
- disruption in brain’s ability to transmit information
- development of plaques & tangles
- personality changes, cognitive losses, & communication losses
- executive, short-term, & long-term memory affected
Alzheimer’s disease
_______________
- memory loss from Thiamine deficiency
- primarily due to alcohol abuse
- severe morning sickness, dialysis
- difficulty learning (memory gaps)
Korsakoff’s syndrome
_______________
- brains flexibility for learning & relearning (throughout life)
Neural plasticity
__________ is the storage of memory
__________ involves creation of new neural pathways
Learning
Memory
____________________
- new neural pathways become stronger the more they are used which produces an increased potential for pathway to be activated again
Long term potentiation
_______________
- nonpathological memory loss over time
Decay
_______________
- old & new memories interfere with storage and/or retrieval
Interference
_______________
- mind fills in details of a memory (unconscious)
Memory construction
_______________
- the mind tries to identify the source of a memory
Source monitoring error
(a source monitoring error occurs when the mind does so incorrectly)
__________ theory
- language is learned through observation & imitation, direct instruction, and conditioning
Learning theory
_______________ theory
- humans are born with a language acquisition device (LAD) that accounts for the order in which children learn structure, the mistakes they make, & the ability to generalize grammar rapidly from limited input
Nativist perspective theory
_______________ theory
- language development is biological & social and influenced by desire to communicate
- children are born with a brain that has the inherent ability to learn language
- children learn language socially by conversation with older people
Interactionist theory
True or False
Language structure influences world view & perceptions of interactions with others
True
Brain areas that control language & speech
- __________ processes language information
- __________ is located in the left temporal lobe & enables understanding of spoken words (produces written & spoken language)
- __________ is located in the left frontal lobe & directs muscle movement necessary for producing speech
- __________ processes written language
Left Hemisphere
Wernicke’s area
Broca’s area
Angular gyrus
Drug type : ______________
- increase energy & alertness
- affect release & reuptake of dopamine-amphetamines, cocaine, Ritalin, caffience, nicotine
Stimulants
Drug type : ______________
- relaxation, reduce anxiety, & sleep aid
- memory & judgment impaired
- increase GABA’s ability to attach to receptor
- Alcohol & Benzodiazepines
Depressants
Drug type : ______________
- activate endorphin synapses
- morphine, heroin, & opiates
Narcotics
Drug type : ______________
- operate on nervous system
- hallucinations, delusions, anxiety, & agitation
- PCP, LSD, MDMA
Hallucinogens
Drug type : ______________
- negative feedback receptors of excitatory, inhibitory neurotransmitters
Cannabis
Prenatal physiological development: 3 trimesters
- 1st trimester : ___________________________
- 2nd trimester : __________________________
- 3rd trimester : __________________________
1st trimester : cells differentiate & organs develop
2nd trimester : bones & skeleton form, sexual organs visible, hair grows, & fingerprints form
3rd trimester : fetal development toward becoming viable outside the womb
_______________
- Freud
- personality determined by interactions between ID (primal drives), ego (moderates ID & superego), & superego (ethical values)
Psychoanalytic
_______________
- people have freedom of choice
- subjective world view influences personality development & behavior
Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow
Humanistic
_______________
- personality features can be identified, measured, & placed on a continuum (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism)
Trait
_______________
- we learn by observing the behavior of others
- Bandura
Social cognitive
_______________
- impact of brain chemistry on personality
- Eysenck, Gray, & Cloninger
Biological
_______________
- interactions between person & environment
- a person’s thoughts & feelings do not influence personality development
- Skinner, Pavlov, & Watson
Behaviorist
_______________
- impairment in behavior, thinking, & mood caused by psychological symptoms
- significantly impacts functioning areas of life
Psychological disorder
___________ model
- psychological disorder is an illness to be cured
- Treatment focuses on biology, physiology, & genetics of the illness
Biomedical model
_______________ model
- biological, psychological, & social factors contribute to disorder
- risk & resiliency factors incorporated into treatment
- treats person in context of environment, psychological, social, biological factors
- emphasizes change to entire system
Biopsychosocial model
Types of psychological disorders are categorized based on the ________
DSM-5
“diagnostic & statistical manual for mental disorders - 5th edition”
DSM-5 major categories
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
Anxiety
Trauma
Obsessive compulsive
Somatic symptoms
Depression
Bipolar
Schizophrenia
Dissociative
Personality disorders
_______________ bases
- biology influences development of schizophrenia, depression, Alzheimer’s disease, & Parkinson’s disease
Biological bases
Emotions include __________, __________ & __________
physiological
behavioral
cognitive
Universal Emotions (7) :
Fear
Anger
Happiness
Surprise
Joy
Disgust
Sadness
Biological components of emotion:
- __________ regulates emotion & is key role in long-term memory formation
- _________ exerts higher-level emotional control & is responsible for delayed gratification and assessing consequences of behaviors
- _________ triggers sympathetic nervous system flight-or-fight response
Limbic system
Prefrontal cortex
Amygdala
The adaptive role of emotion has evolved through ____________ & plays a role in mate selection and response to fearful situations
natural selection
_______________ theory
- in response to a stimulus where physiological changes occur before emotional changes
James-Lange theory
_______________ theory
- emotion primarily experienced in the thalamic region of the brain
- physiologic response occurs either simultaneously or secondarily
- emotion response is not a direct result of physical response
Canon-Bard theory
_______________ theory
- 2 factor theory
- physiological stimulation plays a crucial role in emotion
- the emotional response is triggered by perception of & interpretation of physical reaction to an event
Schlatter-Singer theory
Factors that influence motivation are __________, __________, & __________
instinct
arousal
needs/drives
_______________
- unconscious innate biological behaviors that are genetically programmed
Instinct
_______________
- degree of physical & mental responsiveness to environment
arousal
_______________
- urge to reduce discomfort caused by unmet physiological need
needs/drive
_______________ theory
- organism strive to maintain homeostasis
- a type of theory of motivation
Drive reduction theory
_______________ theory
- motivated by expectations of external reward
- a type of theory of motivation
Incentive theory
_______________ theory
- motivated to satisfy most-pressing needs
- physiological (food or shelter), higher order needs (esteem or love)
- a type of theory of motivation
Need-based theory
______________ theory
- motivated by thoughts, beliefs, & values
- a type of theory of motivation
Cognitive theory
True or false
The application of the motivation theories are for treating compulsive behaviors (substance abuse, eating disorders, & sexual compulsions)
True
_______________
- favorable or unfavorable appraisal of another person, group, event, or object
- expressed through behavior, emotions, & beliefs
Attitude
The 3 components of attitude are __________, __________, & __________
cognitive (beliefs & ideas)
affective (emotion)
behavioral
There is a link between __________ & __________ because strong attitudes are more likely to lead to action & certain behaviors influence attitudes and lead to new behaviors (marketing techniques utilize)
attitude & behavior
_______________
- attitudes in conflict cause discomfort
- discomfort is resolved by changing attitudes or behavior or by ignoring one of the conflicting attitudes
Cognitive dissonance
_______________
- state of physiological emotional tension due to life circumstances
Stress
_______________
- perspective on a given stressor
- can be positive or negative
Appraisal
The outcomes of stress
Positive are __________
Negatives are __________
Motivational
Inhibit functioning
_______________
- is a response to negative stress
- has 3 phases : alarm, resistance, & exhaustion
General adaption syndrome (GAS)
_______________
- groups may arrive at more extreme decisions than each individual member would choose
Group polarization
_______________
- being observed while attempting a task can improve or diminish performance depending on where task is simple, familiar, complex, or novel
Social facilitation
_______________
- people give up identity & norms of behavior when in a group
- adopt identity of group, leaving them vulnerable to influence
Deindividuation
_______________
- people act less likely to help in emergency if other are present (thinking someone else will help)
Bystander effect
_______________
- people exert less effort when part of a group than when alone
Social loafing
_______________
- influence that peers exert on a person’s behavior
- positive or negative
- influenced by individual’s perceptions which may not be accurate
Peer pressure
_______________
- change in behavior as a result of internal or external conditions
- takes place continually
Learning
2 types of learning are ____________ & ____________
Nonassociative & Associative Learning
_______________ Learning
- nervous system response is more likely to occur the more it is used
- Habituation & Dishabituation
Nonassociative Learning
_______________ Learning
- behavior becomes more or less likely to occur if it takes place in proximity to a stimulus that is pleasant or unpleasant
- based on conditioning (association of stimuli & behaviors)
- Classical & Operant
Associative Learning
Learning can be done through __________ or ____________
Observation or Direct instruction
_______________
- when exposed to a stimulus over time, the response to the stimulus decreases if no reinforcement (Nonassociative learning)
Habituation
_______________
- a response that has been diminished through habituation returns when the stimulus is removed for a period of time & then reintroduced (Nonassociative learning)
Dishabituation
_______________
- repeated exposure to a stimulus makes the response more likely
Sensitization
_______________
- associates neutral stimulus with a response by applying the neutral stimulus ‘before’ an involuntary reflex (Associative learning)
Classical
_______________
- increases or decreases likelihood of a voluntary behavior by applying reward or punishment ‘after’ the behavior
Operant
_______________ learning
- people learn specific behaviors by observing behaviors of others & practicing
- can be positive or negative behaviors
Observational learning
_______________
- brain cells that are activated when an individual sees someone perform an action & reactivated when the individual performs the action
- allow people to feel the emotional states of others vicariously (vicarious emotion)
Mirror neurons
_______________ model
- attitude change occurs by central route or peripheral route
Elaboration likelihood model
Elaboration likelihood model :
_________ route
- person is eager to hear message & is capable of interpreting it
- allows person to appraise message critically & make a more informed decision
Central route
Elaboration likelihood model :
_________ route
- little motivation to learn or the topic exceeds cognitive abilities
- person focuses on peripheral information & make a more impulsive decision
Peripheral route
____________ theory
- motivation is driven by internal factors & external factors, such as observation of others and the expectation of reward
Social cognitive theory
Social cognitive theory ;
________ factors - observes behavior of others & consequences of the behavior
________ factors - uses evaluations to determine whether to imitate behavior
External factors
Internal factors
____________
- perception of oneself as an individual & as a member of various social groups based upon self-evaluation and self-schema
Self-Concept
____________
- the aspect of a person’s identity that includes the groups with which the person associates with such as family, school, clubs, or political party
Social identity
____________
- expression & conception of self-concept
- encompasses values, beliefs, strengths, & weaknesses (which are heavily influenced by interactions with other people & social systems)
Identity
____________
- perception of one’s overall value, purpose, ability, & emotional response to self-appraisal
- influenced by relationships (ex: primary childhood caregiver)
Self-esteem
____________
- one’s sense of having tools & ability to cope with life
Self-efficacy
____________ of control
- a perception of whether one controls one’s life through inner resources (internal locus) or one is controlled by others (external locus)
Locus of control
____________
- categories of personal & social identity used to describe oneself and connections with others
Identities
Freud’s 5 stages of psychosexual development (based on primary pleasure zone) :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Oral (0- 18 months)
Anal (18 months - 3 years)
Phallic (3 - 6 years)
Latency (6 years - puberty)
Genital (puberty & above)
________________ is a psychoanalytic theory that describes a child’s feelings of desire for their opposite-sex parent & jealousy and anger toward their same-sex parent
Oedipus complex
(found in phallic stage in psychosexual development)
Erickson’s 8 stages of psychosocial development (individual must resolve certain development tasks in a specific order)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Trust vs. Mistrust (0 - 18 months)
Autonomy vs. Shame (18 months - 3yrs)
Initiative vs. Guilt (3 - 5 years)
Industry vs. Inferiority (5 - 12 years)
Identity vs. Role confusion (13 - 19 years)
Intimacy vs. Isolation (20 - 39 years)
Generativity vs. Stagnation (40 - 64 years)
Ego integrity vs. Despair (65 - death)
____________
- cognitive framework for organizing & interpreting information
Schema
Adaptation
- learning of skills necessary to adjust to the world
- __________ : processing of new info through existing schema
- __________ : adjustment to schema in dace of new info that cannot be assimilated by old schema
Assimilation
Accommodation
____________
- desired internal state when schema is successful
Equilibrium
Piaget’s 4 stages of Cognitive Development
1.
2.
3.
4.
Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
Pre-operational thought (2-7 years)
Concrete Operational (7-12 years)
Formal Operational (12-16 years)
True or False
Piaget’s stages end at Adolescence unlike Erickson’s which continue through life
True
Piaget’s Cognitive Development stage:
__________
- awareness of use of senses to understand world
- object permanence (object continues to exist when unseen)
- goal-directed behavior
Sensorimotor
Piaget’s Cognitive Development stage:
__________
- thinking symbolically about objects/people not present
- Skills include classification (similarities/differences), seriation (organize in order), & conservation (size unchanged but shape changes)
- Obstacles include egocentrism (inability to understand perspective of others) & centration (focus on single aspect of a situation due to inability to see multiple aspects)
Pre-operational thought
Piaget’s Cognitive Development stage:
__________
- logical thinking
- concrete thought but not abstract thought
Concrete Operational
Piaget’s Cognitive Development stage:
__________
- abstract thought
- higher order reasoning
Formal Operational
____________ of identity development
- identity formation influenced by social environment, culture, biology, motivation, parental attachment, & judgment
Social Factors
____________ theory of sociocultural development
- sociocultural factors determine the direction of personality development & knowledge acquisition
Vygotsky’s theory of sociocultural development
The most significant influence in sociocultural development is social interaction with __________, _________, & other adults
Parents & Teachers
True of False
The use of language is important in the developmental process in sociocultural development
True
__________ theory
- assigning explanations for behavior to contextualize
Attribution theory
__________________
- ascribing internal characteristics to explain behavior of others rather than considering external explanations
- internal explanations like “stupid” or “inept”
Fundamental attribution error
Perceptions & beliefs about ourselves influence ____________ we make about others
Attributions
If we believe a person’s behavior is caused by environmental factors rather than by a personality trait then we tend to believe the person is (less OR more) likely to repeat the behavior
Less
_________________
- can lead to misassumptions about reasons for actions of people from other cultures
- due to stereotypes or misunderstanding cultural expressions
Cultural differences
____________
- negative opinion about a group based solely on discernable characteristics including race, gender, age, sexuality, or religious beliefs
Prejudice
____________
- preference for a certain standpoint (as opposed to deeply help belief)
- bias inclines an individual toward certain behaviors or attitudes
Bias
____________
- a commonly held generalization about a group of people
Stereotype
____________
- sociologist Robert Merton defined this as a “false definition of the situation evoking a new behavior which makes the original false conception come true”
Self-fulfilling prophecy
_________________
- apprehension experienced by individuals who fear that their behavior or performance will confirm a negative stereotype about their social group
Stereotype threat
Culture & gender determine who can express specific _________ and when & which are acceptable
Feelings (emotions)
____________
- social interactions guided by innate desire to leave a positive impression on other people
- individuals & social groups continually try to influence other people’s perceptions by choosing what info to share with others
Impression management
____________ communication
- based on a language system (grammatical rules)
- includes spoken, written, & signed language
Verbal communication (linguistic)
____________ communication
- not based on grammatical rules & conveys meaning through gestures, face, eye contact, posture, tone of voice, and touch
Nonverbal communication
____________ communication
- less able to convey complexities
- primates & other animals able to understand some abstract vocabulary
- maintains social connections
Animal communication
____________
- positive feelings held toward another & desire to be with another
Attraction
____________
- behavior that threatens or causes physical and emotional harm
- verbal, physical, & psychological
- instrumental (achieve goal) & hostile (response to provocation)
Aggression
____________
- extended long term bond between individuals
- feel need for being with each other
- separation results in anxiety
Attachment
____________
- acting to benefit another regardless of consequences to self
Alturism
____________
- network of family, friends, health care providers, & community resources that are essential to one’s physical and emotional health
Social support
3 types of support :
__________, __________, & __________
Emotional, Material, & Appraisal
____________
- conservative theoretical approach
- sees society as a harmoniously functioning whole with constituent parts working together to maintain societal equilibrium
- compares society to a living organism with its various parts functioning like biological systems to maintain society’s existence
Functionalism
____________ theory
- views society as composed of 2 competing categories of people (those with power & those without power)
- postulates that conflict in society is generated by the powerful working to maintain their societal advantage while the powerless strive to acquire power
- unique among sociological paradigms in that it advocates for a sociologist’s active role in bringing about social equality
Conflict theory
____________
- microlevel perspective focusing on interactions among individuals
- believes that the interactions among individuals shape society
- focuses on the symbols people use to interact with others & how these symbols are interpreted
- people are considered active participants in interactions
symbolic interactionalism
____________
- believes that social reality is defined by the way individuals relate to that reality rather than by objective criteria (social construction of reality)
- EX: a coins meaning is defined by individuals agreeing that the coin has worth rather than by the coins metallic value
Social constructionism
____________
- learned behaviors shared by a people
Culture
____________ Culture
- physical objects created by society’s members
Material Culture
____________ Culture
- nonmaterial elements of culture
- symbols, language, values, beliefs, norms, & rituals
Symbolic Culture
____________
- objects, images, sounds, or actions that are associated with a meaning
Symbols
____________
- a system of symbols that convey highly complex meanings
Language
____________
- broad standards that define qualities important to a society
Values
____________
- specific shared notions about what is true or false
Beliefs
____________
- rules & regulations that guide the behaviors of society’s members
Norms
____________
- deal with moral issues & have strong societal support
Mores
____________
- have weaker support & carry less severe punishments for violators
Folkways
____________
- established patterns of formal behavior conducted on special occasions
Rituals
____________
- segments of society that share a set of value different from those of the wider society
- the most significant are based on factors like ethnicity, national origin, religion, or language
- others are based on interests or hobbies
Subcultures
____________
- the process by which members of a subculture take on the characteristics of the dominant culture
- can help members of a subculture avoid prejudice & discrimination but at the cost of losing their cultural heritage & self-esteem
Assimilation
____________
- an appreciation of cultural diversity
- reduces the pressure for members of subcultures to assimilate
Multiculturalism
____________
- the life long process through which cultural values, beliefs, & norms are transmitted across generations
Socialization
Agents of ____________
- Family, School, Peer group, Mass media, & Workplace
Agents of socialization
____________
- performing actions that depart from & violate cultural norms
- labeling behavior or person as deviant affirms society’s values & norms
Deviance
Punishments for violating cultural norms are mechanisms for ____________ (the way in which society attempts to regulate the behaviors of its members)
social control
____________
- a strongly negative label that society associates with an individual
- acquired when deviant behavior is persistent
- changes the individuals self-concept & social identity
- stigmatized people may internalize negative label & become socially isolated
Stigma
____________
- the process by which individuals modify their behavior in direct response to the influence of another person or group
Conformity
____________ social influence
- individual’s behavior, appearance, beliefs, and/or values are influenced by the desire to act like others & be accepted
- most pronounced when group is important to individual (strength), when group is close in space & time (immediacy), or when there is a large number of people in the group (number)
Normative social influence
____________ social influence
- individual is unsure how to act in a particular situation
- relies on info gained by observing others in similar situations
Informational social influence
____________
- compliance with other people’s demands
- driven by a need to please others
- most people have been socialized to defer to authorities, experts, or other people in power positions to avoid punishment, embarrassment, or rejection
Obedience
____________
- major areas of social life that meet or attempt to meet the needs of society’s members
Social institutions
____________
- a social institution that transfers society’s knowledge to its members
- the quality received by a person is affected by factors such as class, race, ethnicity, & gender
Education
_______ & _______ institutions
- serve to maintain the health & well-being of the members of a society
- different societies set different standard for acceptable health
Health & medical institutions
The primary focus of _________ is meeting spiritual needs of society’s members
religion
___________ separates the sacred from the profane (ordinary or mundane)
Religion
The __________ is considered the basic unit of society
Family
The __________ family plays a greater role in pre-industrialized societies than in industrialized ones
“includes parents, children, & kin”
extended family
The __________ family plays a greater role in industrialized societies
- functionalists see the family as the backbone of society because of the family’s socialization & supportive functions
- conflict theory sees the family as the agent for perpetuating class, race, ethnic, & gender inequality
“1 or 2 parents & the children”
Nuclear Family
____________
- functions to assign authority & guide society as a whole
Government
The __________ serves to regulate the production, distribution, & consumption of society’s goods/services
economy
True or False
Government & economy are closely related and particular forms of government ten to coexist with specific economic systems (monarchy with feudalism, democracy with capitalism, & communism with socialism)
True
____________
- the exchange of actions among people in a society
Social interaction
____________
- the social position that a person holds in a society
Status
____________
- includes all of the status positions held by a particular person (professor bing middle aged being a parent & a coach)
Status set
____________
- includes status that is given to a person at birth or later in life through little or no effort by that person
Ascribed status
____________
- is voluntarily acquired through a person’s effort or lack of effort
- also a person’s occupation
Achieved status
____________
- the expected behavior that is attached to a status
Role
____________
- the various roles of a single status
role set
____________
- the conflict between roles of a single status
role strain
____________
- tension between roles of different statuses
role conflict
____________
- 2 or more people who interact with & feel connected to each other
Social group
____________ group
- characterized by close personal relationships
- interactions are ends in themselves & not means to another end (ex: family or peer group)
Primary group
____________ group
- large group composed of impersonal relationships
- centered around a focused activity
- interactions are guided toward specific goals (ex: students in the same school & coworkers at a company)
Secondary group
____________
- loose associations of people that often comprise many people over great distances
Network
____________
- large secondary groups characterized by bureaucracy
Organizations
____________
- model of organizations emphasizing rationality, hierarchy, specialization of skills, & impersonal rules and regulations
Bureaucracy
____________
- statistical study of the characteristics of human populations
- ex: age, sex, race, immigrants, & ethnicity
Demography
_________________ theory
- links societal transitions to technological changes
- pre-industrialization, industrialization, & post-industrialization
Demographic transition theory
____________
- populations remain constant
- high birth rates (need for labor) & high death rates (low living standards)
Pre-industrialization
____________
- population explosion
- decreased death rates (higher living standards) & birth rates remain high
- as it matures the birth & death rates fall due to medical advancements so only a steady growth in population
Industrialization
____________
- slow population growth
- birth rates fall & death rates constant
Post-industrialization
____________
- the number of births in a given population
Fertility
____________
- the number of deaths in a given population
Mortality
____________
- the movement of people ‘into’ a society’s land
Immigration
____________
- the movement of people ‘out’ of a society’s land
Emigration
____________
- collective push for social change or to maintain the status quo
- can culminate in war which lowers population due to fatalities & emigration
Social movement
____________
- overall tendency for social processes to become increasingly more global & less territorial
- expected to expand in the foreseeable future
Globalization
____________
- movement of people from rural areas to urban areas
- most advanced in developed countries but a strong trend in developing countries
- economics is affected by the excess of labor in the cities
- environment is affected by large paved land areas, lack of vegetation, & concentrated pollution from industry and transportation
Urbanization
____________
- differences between layers of society distinguished by status, economics, power, & politics
Social stratification
__________, __________, & __________ determine the extent to which people can maintain or improve their situation
Class, status, & power
____________
- economic division between upper, middle, & lower income people
Class
____________
- not necessarily based on wealth but on how others view one
- can be achieved by actions or through reputation
- in some societies it is primarily inherited
Status
____________
- the ability to manipulate elements of society to one’s benefit
- some may achieve this without class standing or status, through their own actions
Power
____________
- the cultural qualities that are valuable in improving social standing
- ex : education, intelligence, manner of dress, & manner of speech
Cultural Capital
____________
- the social connections established by a person on which the person can draw to improve social standing
Social Capital
____________
- the phenomenon in which social standing is preserved from one generation to the next
- both high & low standing are preserved through social reproduction
- responsible for the perpetuation of social inequality
Social reproduction
____________
- the phenomenon in which some people have access to certain societal benefits through ascribed characteristics such as gender, race, & age
- granted through the values of others rather than earned
- people who benefit through their own actions & may not understand why others without it have not
Privilege
____________
- the respect granted to someone because of their status, class, or power
- may or may not correlate with a person’s actions or attributes
Prestige
True or False
Analyses of intersections with race, gender, & age reveal that the dynamics that result in class, power, & status in a society do not apply in the same way to all people
True
____________
- the ability to move from 1 class or status to another
- can be downward or upward
- may or may not reflect a particular person’s abilities & skills
Social mobility
____________
- changes in status that take place from 1 generation to the next
- can be improved by programs that support young children of lower-class families
Intergenerational mobility
____________
- changes in status that occur within 1 generation
- correlated with an individual’s efforts & support programs aimed at adults
- legislation can support it by removing discriminatory laws
Intragenerational mobility
____________
- improved status
Upward mobility
____________
- decreased status
- a pervasive pattern of downward mobility for a group of people indicates that significant negative societal forces are acting on that group
Downward mobility
____________
- the belief that people should benefit in proportion to their merits (abilities, skills, productivity, intelligence, & talent)
- stands in opposition to the belief that certain people are entitled to power or status by virtue of belonging to certain groups or heredity)
- favors upward mobility of oppressed groups (although members of those groups may need support to develop merits)
- discrimination prevents people from access to developing merits
Meritocracy
True or False
Few if any societies can avoid having an impoverished class (affects the quality of life of middle & upper-class people)
True
____________
- lack of basic necessities of life (food, clothing, shelter, & health care)
Absolute poverty
____________
- lack of material wealth in relation to the average material wealth in a given society
- people may have basic necessities but cannot live as well as other in the society
Relative poverty
____________
- the process by which certain groups are excluded from access to goods or services available to others
- keeps certain groups separate from mainstream society (segregation)
- simultaneously forces those groups into their own closed society (isolation)
Social exclusion
____________ discrimination
- acts of discrimination committed by individuals
individual discrimination
____________ discrimination
- discrimination built into the structure of many institutions including governmental, economic, religious, & educational institutional
- difficult to exchange because of inflexibility of institutional structures
Institutional discrimination
____________
- discriminatory access to products/services based on location
- groups kept physically isolated by social exclusion may not have access to resources that people living in mainstream communities have
Spatial inequality
____________
- certain groups are restricted in the areas in which they may live
- in the US, this occurs primarily because of discriminatory housing practices on the part of property owners
Residential segregation
Segregated neighborhoods may not have the power to protect themselves from __________
pollution (environmental inequality)
____________
- entire regions of the world lack adequate access to education, employment, health care, & basic necessities
Global inequalities
____________
- primarily due to effects of discrimination & resulting lower socioeconomic status
- not due to racial characteristics
- significant differences among different racial groups in incidence of obesity, diabetes, stroke, heart disease, & cancer
Racial health disparities
____________
- women tend to live longer than men
- women have less access to health care
- men are more likely to suffer from accidents & violence
Gender health disparities
____________
- are related to socioeconomic status
- upper class has more & faster access to health care and better heath education
Class health disparities
True or false
The same forces that create health disparities also affect access to health care
True
True or False
A woman’s access to health care correlates to some extent with the attitudes of her family & community (more restrictive views of women’s roles may reduce access to health care & women may be less able to afford health care because of unequal income)
True
