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Psych/Soc Flashcards

1
Q

_______________
- smallest magnitude of a stimulus identifiable 50% of the time

A

Sensory threshold

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2
Q

_______________
- Smallest noticeable change in baseline stimulus

A

Just noticeable difference (jnd)

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3
Q

_______________ law
- The just noticeable difference between a baseline stimulus level & a new level varies in proportion to the baseline stimulus
- Turning a low sound up 1 db is more noticeable than turning a loud sound up 1db

A

Webers law

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4
Q

_______________ theory
- competing stimuli interfere with the ability to identify the presence or absence of a target stimulus

A

Signal detection theory

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5
Q

_______________
- under continued or extreme stimulation, sensory receptors undergo physiological changes that affect the degree of sensitivity

A

Sensory adaptation

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6
Q

_______________ theory
- brain processes sense input in multiple ways at 1 time

A

Parallel processing theory

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7
Q

_______________ system
- complex system integrating many bodily sensations (temperature, touch, proprioception, pain)

A

Somatosensory system

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8
Q

_______________
- awareness of body position

A

Proprioception

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9
Q

_______________
- identifies body positioning & movement

A

Kinesthetic sense

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10
Q

_______________
- responsible for balance & orientation

A

Vestibular system

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11
Q

_______________
- registered through chemoreceptors & taste buds

A

Taste

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12
Q

_______________
- registered through chemoreceptors & olfactory cells

A

Smell

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13
Q

_______________
- excreted chemical compounds that elicit a specific response (species specific)
-EX: mark territories, signal food trails, warn of danger, indicate sexual receptivity, & increase maternal bond

A

Pheromones

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14
Q

_______________
- interpretation of the information received from senses

A

Perception

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15
Q

_______________
- allows perception of an object in a consistent way

A

Perceptual constancy

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16
Q

_______________
- ability to determine how far away an object is

A

Depth perception

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17
Q

_______________
- allows perception of visual outlines as constituting an object regardless of changes in size, shape, & environment

A

Form constancy

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18
Q

_______________
- visual cues & vestibular senses determine if an object is moving

A

Motion

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19
Q

_____________ principles
- The brain organizes small bits of information into larger patterns

A

Gestalt principles

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20
Q

_______________ processing
- using small bits of information to develop a larger picture

A

Bottom-up processing

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21
Q

_______________ processing
- incorporating experience, knowledge, & expectations to interpret lower-level bits of information

A

Top-down processing

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22
Q

_______________
- a state of focused awareness on a given set of stimuli

A

Attention

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23
Q

_____________ attention
- The process of filtering out extraneous stimuli to direct attention onto the object of interest

A

Selective attention

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24
Q

_____________ attention
- placing attention onto more than 1 objects simultaneously such that the attention to each object is diminished

A

Divided attention

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25
Q

_______________
- the ability to take in, process, store, & retrieve information
- development has predictable childhood & adolescent stages

A

Cognition

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26
Q

_______________ theory
- stages of cognitive development
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete operational
Formal operational

A

Piaget’s theory

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27
Q

____________ vs. ____________
- both act on a child’s cognitive development

A

Environment
Heredity

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28
Q

Cognitive changes in _______________
- diminished ability to process information (verbal meaning, spatial orientation, inductive reasoning, number ability, word fluency, short-term & long-term memory)

A

Late adulthood

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29
Q

_____________effects cognitive development
- cognitive development occurs in a cultural context (influences development, problem-solving abilities, & values)

A

Culture

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30
Q

_______________
- The mental processes involved in identifying, analyzing, & resolving problems

A

Problem solving

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31
Q

_______________
- applies learned strategies & intuitive insights to a current problem

A

Trial & Error

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32
Q

_______________
- uses specific steps that consistently lead to success

A

Algorithm

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33
Q

_______________
- a highly simplified general rule of thumb
- effective if used correctly
- ineffective if overgeneralized

A

Heuristic

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34
Q

__________________ theory
- problem solving encompasses current state of affairs, desired state of affairs, & all possible options in between

A

Problem space theory

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35
Q

_______________
- behaviors that were successful in the past are likely to be repeated even if unsuccessful in a current situation

A

Law of effect

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36
Q

__________ to effective problem solving
- valid strategy applied incorrectly, ineffective strategy, inefficiency, false assumptions, irrelevant information, absence of rational thought, & functional fixedness

A

Barriers

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37
Q

_______________
- automatic preferences for a specific action
- often unconscious
- may block rational thoughts

A

Biases

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38
Q

__________ & ______ can override logic and rational thought processes

A

Intuition & Emotion

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39
Q

____________ & __________ can result in refusal to abandon a belief in the face of evidence against it

A

Overconfidence & belief perseverance

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40
Q

_______________
- measurable state of awareness of environment

A

Alertness

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41
Q

_______________
- reduced sensory perception & muscle tension
- contains stages & cycles
- dreaming

A

Sleep

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42
Q

Stages ________ are non-REM sleep
Stages ________ is REM sleep

A

1-4
5

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43
Q

Sleep cycles are stages 1-5 with the 1st cycle being 70-100 mins while subsequent cycles become __________

A

Longer

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44
Q

True or false
Dreaming occur most often during REM sleep while dreaming in non-REM is mostly forgotten

A

True

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45
Q

_______________
- alertness, physically still, & open to sensing stimuli
- multiple benefits

A

Meditation

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46
Q

_______________
- reduced state of consciousness with increased focus is attention & increased susceptibility to suggestion
- multiple therapeutic applications

A

Hypnosis

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47
Q

_______________
- biological regulation occurring in 24hr cycles
- influenced by environments & behavior

A

Circadian rhythms

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48
Q

_______________
- ability to learn, be flexible in, & adapt to new situations
- capacity for abstract thinking

A

Intelligence

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49
Q

__________ & __________ can both influence intelligence

A

Heredity & Environment

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50
Q

_______________
- genetic markers in 3 chromosomes
- twin studies & adoption studies document influence of heredity

A

Heredity

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51
Q

_______________
- influences are family of origin, education, economics, race, gender, & academic enrichment
- high-quality communication from 0-3yrs & early education programs also have an impact

A

Environment

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52
Q

IQ score of 70 or lower = ______________
IQ score of 130 or greater = _____________

A

Intellectual disability or intellectual development disorder
Gifted

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53
Q

_______________
- encoding & storage of information to be retrieved later

A

Memory

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54
Q

_______________
- process by which sensory information is converted into stored memory

A

Encoding

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55
Q

_______________
- includes sensory memory, short-term memory, working memory, & long-term memory
- semantic network (web of interrelated facts) or spreading activation (retrieval enhanced with contextual information)

A

Storage

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56
Q

Retrieval can be from ____________ or ____________

A

Short term or Long term

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57
Q

Types of retrieval include __________, __________, & __________ (retrieval cues enhance ability to access a memory)

A

Recall
Recognition
Relearning

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58
Q

_______________
- pathological memory loss that disrupts functioning

A

Memory dysfunction

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59
Q

Aging & Memory
- forgetfulness especially after age ______
- deficiencies in processing new memories, in binding information in memory, & in retrieval associations

A

65 years

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60
Q

True or false
Procedural & emotionally imprinted memory & semantic knowledge are not affected with aging memory loss

A

True

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61
Q

_______________
- disruption in brain’s ability to transmit information
- development of plaques & tangles
- personality changes, cognitive losses, & communication losses
- executive, short-term, & long-term memory affected

A

Alzheimer’s disease

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62
Q

_______________
- memory loss from Thiamine deficiency
- primarily due to alcohol abuse
- severe morning sickness, dialysis
- difficulty learning (memory gaps)

A

Korsakoff’s syndrome

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63
Q

_______________
- brains flexibility for learning & relearning (throughout life)

A

Neural plasticity

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64
Q

__________ is the storage of memory
__________ involves creation of new neural pathways

A

Learning
Memory

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65
Q

____________________
- new neural pathways become stronger the more they are used which produces an increased potential for pathway to be activated again

A

Long term potentiation

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66
Q

_______________
- nonpathological memory loss over time

A

Decay

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67
Q

_______________
- old & new memories interfere with storage and/or retrieval

A

Interference

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68
Q

_______________
- mind fills in details of a memory (unconscious)

A

Memory construction

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69
Q

_______________
- the mind tries to identify the source of a memory

A

Source monitoring error
(a source monitoring error occurs when the mind does so incorrectly)

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70
Q

__________ theory
- language is learned through observation & imitation, direct instruction, and conditioning

A

Learning theory

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71
Q

_______________ theory
- humans are born with a language acquisition device (LAD) that accounts for the order in which children learn structure, the mistakes they make, & the ability to generalize grammar rapidly from limited input

A

Nativist perspective theory

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72
Q

_______________ theory
- language development is biological & social and influenced by desire to communicate
- children are born with a brain that has the inherent ability to learn language
- children learn language socially by conversation with older people

A

Interactionist theory

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73
Q

True or False
Language structure influences world view & perceptions of interactions with others

A

True

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74
Q

Brain areas that control language & speech
- __________ processes language information
- __________ is located in the left temporal lobe & enables understanding of spoken words (produces written & spoken language)
- __________ is located in the left frontal lobe & directs muscle movement necessary for producing speech
- __________ processes written language

A

Left Hemisphere
Wernicke’s area
Broca’s area
Angular gyrus

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75
Q

Drug type : ______________
- increase energy & alertness
- affect release & reuptake of dopamine-amphetamines, cocaine, Ritalin, caffience, nicotine

A

Stimulants

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76
Q

Drug type : ______________
- relaxation, reduce anxiety, & sleep aid
- memory & judgment impaired
- increase GABA’s ability to attach to receptor
- Alcohol & Benzodiazepines

A

Depressants

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77
Q

Drug type : ______________
- activate endorphin synapses
- morphine, heroin, & opiates

A

Narcotics

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78
Q

Drug type : ______________
- operate on nervous system
- hallucinations, delusions, anxiety, & agitation
- PCP, LSD, MDMA

A

Hallucinogens

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79
Q

Drug type : ______________
- negative feedback receptors of excitatory, inhibitory neurotransmitters

A

Cannabis

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80
Q

Prenatal physiological development: 3 trimesters
- 1st trimester : ___________________________
- 2nd trimester : __________________________
- 3rd trimester : __________________________

A

1st trimester : cells differentiate & organs develop
2nd trimester : bones & skeleton form, sexual organs visible, hair grows, & fingerprints form
3rd trimester : fetal development toward becoming viable outside the womb

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81
Q

_______________
- Freud
- personality determined by interactions between ID (primal drives), ego (moderates ID & superego), & superego (ethical values)

A

Psychoanalytic

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82
Q

_______________
- people have freedom of choice
- subjective world view influences personality development & behavior
Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow

A

Humanistic

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83
Q

_______________
- personality features can be identified, measured, & placed on a continuum (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism)

A

Trait

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84
Q

_______________
- we learn by observing the behavior of others
- Bandura

A

Social cognitive

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85
Q

_______________
- impact of brain chemistry on personality
- Eysenck, Gray, & Cloninger

A

Biological

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86
Q

_______________
- interactions between person & environment
- a person’s thoughts & feelings do not influence personality development
- Skinner, Pavlov, & Watson

A

Behaviorist

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87
Q

_______________
- impairment in behavior, thinking, & mood caused by psychological symptoms
- significantly impacts functioning areas of life

A

Psychological disorder

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88
Q

___________ model
- psychological disorder is an illness to be cured
- Treatment focuses on biology, physiology, & genetics of the illness

A

Biomedical model

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89
Q

_______________ model
- biological, psychological, & social factors contribute to disorder
- risk & resiliency factors incorporated into treatment
- treats person in context of environment, psychological, social, biological factors
- emphasizes change to entire system

A

Biopsychosocial model

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90
Q

Types of psychological disorders are categorized based on the ________

A

DSM-5
“diagnostic & statistical manual for mental disorders - 5th edition”

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91
Q

DSM-5 major categories
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________

A

Anxiety
Trauma
Obsessive compulsive
Somatic symptoms
Depression
Bipolar
Schizophrenia
Dissociative
Personality disorders

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92
Q

_______________ bases
- biology influences development of schizophrenia, depression, Alzheimer’s disease, & Parkinson’s disease

A

Biological bases

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93
Q

Emotions include __________, __________ & __________

A

physiological
behavioral
cognitive

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94
Q

Universal Emotions (7) :

A

Fear
Anger
Happiness
Surprise
Joy
Disgust
Sadness

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95
Q

Biological components of emotion:
- __________ regulates emotion & is key role in long-term memory formation
- _________ exerts higher-level emotional control & is responsible for delayed gratification and assessing consequences of behaviors
- _________ triggers sympathetic nervous system flight-or-fight response

A

Limbic system
Prefrontal cortex
Amygdala

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96
Q

The adaptive role of emotion has evolved through ____________ & plays a role in mate selection and response to fearful situations

A

natural selection

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97
Q

_______________ theory
- in response to a stimulus where physiological changes occur before emotional changes

A

James-Lange theory

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98
Q

_______________ theory
- emotion primarily experienced in the thalamic region of the brain
- physiologic response occurs either simultaneously or secondarily
- emotion response is not a direct result of physical response

A

Canon-Bard theory

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99
Q

_______________ theory
- 2 factor theory
- physiological stimulation plays a crucial role in emotion
- the emotional response is triggered by perception of & interpretation of physical reaction to an event

A

Schlatter-Singer theory

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100
Q

Factors that influence motivation are __________, __________, & __________

A

instinct
arousal
needs/drives

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101
Q

_______________
- unconscious innate biological behaviors that are genetically programmed

A

Instinct

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102
Q

_______________
- degree of physical & mental responsiveness to environment

A

arousal

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103
Q

_______________
- urge to reduce discomfort caused by unmet physiological need

A

needs/drive

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104
Q

_______________ theory
- organism strive to maintain homeostasis
- a type of theory of motivation

A

Drive reduction theory

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105
Q

_______________ theory
- motivated by expectations of external reward
- a type of theory of motivation

A

Incentive theory

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106
Q

_______________ theory
- motivated to satisfy most-pressing needs
- physiological (food or shelter), higher order needs (esteem or love)
- a type of theory of motivation

A

Need-based theory

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107
Q

______________ theory
- motivated by thoughts, beliefs, & values
- a type of theory of motivation

A

Cognitive theory

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108
Q

True or false
The application of the motivation theories are for treating compulsive behaviors (substance abuse, eating disorders, & sexual compulsions)

A

True

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109
Q

_______________
- favorable or unfavorable appraisal of another person, group, event, or object
- expressed through behavior, emotions, & beliefs

A

Attitude

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110
Q

The 3 components of attitude are __________, __________, & __________

A

cognitive (beliefs & ideas)
affective (emotion)
behavioral

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111
Q

There is a link between __________ & __________ because strong attitudes are more likely to lead to action & certain behaviors influence attitudes and lead to new behaviors (marketing techniques utilize)

A

attitude & behavior

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112
Q

_______________
- attitudes in conflict cause discomfort
- discomfort is resolved by changing attitudes or behavior or by ignoring one of the conflicting attitudes

A

Cognitive dissonance

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113
Q

_______________
- state of physiological emotional tension due to life circumstances

A

Stress

114
Q

_______________
- perspective on a given stressor
- can be positive or negative

A

Appraisal

115
Q

The outcomes of stress
Positive are __________
Negatives are __________

A

Motivational
Inhibit functioning

116
Q

_______________
- is a response to negative stress
- has 3 phases : alarm, resistance, & exhaustion

A

General adaption syndrome (GAS)

117
Q

_______________
- groups may arrive at more extreme decisions than each individual member would choose

A

Group polarization

118
Q

_______________
- being observed while attempting a task can improve or diminish performance depending on where task is simple, familiar, complex, or novel

A

Social facilitation

119
Q

_______________
- people give up identity & norms of behavior when in a group
- adopt identity of group, leaving them vulnerable to influence

A

Deindividuation

120
Q

_______________
- people act less likely to help in emergency if other are present (thinking someone else will help)

A

Bystander effect

121
Q

_______________
- people exert less effort when part of a group than when alone

A

Social loafing

122
Q

_______________
- influence that peers exert on a person’s behavior
- positive or negative
- influenced by individual’s perceptions which may not be accurate

A

Peer pressure

123
Q

_______________
- change in behavior as a result of internal or external conditions
- takes place continually

A

Learning

124
Q

2 types of learning are ____________ & ____________

A

Nonassociative & Associative Learning

125
Q

_______________ Learning
- nervous system response is more likely to occur the more it is used
- Habituation & Dishabituation

A

Nonassociative Learning

126
Q

_______________ Learning
- behavior becomes more or less likely to occur if it takes place in proximity to a stimulus that is pleasant or unpleasant
- based on conditioning (association of stimuli & behaviors)
- Classical & Operant

A

Associative Learning

127
Q

Learning can be done through __________ or ____________

A

Observation or Direct instruction

128
Q

_______________
- when exposed to a stimulus over time, the response to the stimulus decreases if no reinforcement (Nonassociative learning)

A

Habituation

129
Q

_______________
- a response that has been diminished through habituation returns when the stimulus is removed for a period of time & then reintroduced (Nonassociative learning)

A

Dishabituation

130
Q

_______________
- repeated exposure to a stimulus makes the response more likely

A

Sensitization

131
Q

_______________
- associates neutral stimulus with a response by applying the neutral stimulus ‘before’ an involuntary reflex (Associative learning)

A

Classical

132
Q

_______________
- increases or decreases likelihood of a voluntary behavior by applying reward or punishment ‘after’ the behavior

A

Operant

133
Q

_______________ learning
- people learn specific behaviors by observing behaviors of others & practicing
- can be positive or negative behaviors

A

Observational learning

134
Q

_______________
- brain cells that are activated when an individual sees someone perform an action & reactivated when the individual performs the action
- allow people to feel the emotional states of others vicariously (vicarious emotion)

A

Mirror neurons

135
Q

_______________ model
- attitude change occurs by central route or peripheral route

A

Elaboration likelihood model

136
Q

Elaboration likelihood model :
_________ route
- person is eager to hear message & is capable of interpreting it
- allows person to appraise message critically & make a more informed decision

A

Central route

137
Q

Elaboration likelihood model :
_________ route
- little motivation to learn or the topic exceeds cognitive abilities
- person focuses on peripheral information & make a more impulsive decision

A

Peripheral route

138
Q

____________ theory
- motivation is driven by internal factors & external factors, such as observation of others and the expectation of reward

A

Social cognitive theory

139
Q

Social cognitive theory ;
________ factors - observes behavior of others & consequences of the behavior
________ factors - uses evaluations to determine whether to imitate behavior

A

External factors
Internal factors

140
Q

____________
- perception of oneself as an individual & as a member of various social groups based upon self-evaluation and self-schema

A

Self-Concept

141
Q

____________
- the aspect of a person’s identity that includes the groups with which the person associates with such as family, school, clubs, or political party

A

Social identity

142
Q

____________
- expression & conception of self-concept
- encompasses values, beliefs, strengths, & weaknesses (which are heavily influenced by interactions with other people & social systems)

A

Identity

143
Q

____________
- perception of one’s overall value, purpose, ability, & emotional response to self-appraisal
- influenced by relationships (ex: primary childhood caregiver)

A

Self-esteem

144
Q

____________
- one’s sense of having tools & ability to cope with life

A

Self-efficacy

145
Q

____________ of control
- a perception of whether one controls one’s life through inner resources (internal locus) or one is controlled by others (external locus)

A

Locus of control

146
Q

____________
- categories of personal & social identity used to describe oneself and connections with others

A

Identities

147
Q

Freud’s 5 stages of psychosexual development (based on primary pleasure zone) :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

A

Oral (0- 18 months)
Anal (18 months - 3 years)
Phallic (3 - 6 years)
Latency (6 years - puberty)
Genital (puberty & above)

148
Q

________________ is a psychoanalytic theory that describes a child’s feelings of desire for their opposite-sex parent & jealousy and anger toward their same-sex parent

A

Oedipus complex
(found in phallic stage in psychosexual development)

149
Q

Erickson’s 8 stages of psychosocial development (individual must resolve certain development tasks in a specific order)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

A

Trust vs. Mistrust (0 - 18 months)
Autonomy vs. Shame (18 months - 3yrs)
Initiative vs. Guilt (3 - 5 years)
Industry vs. Inferiority (5 - 12 years)
Identity vs. Role confusion (13 - 19 years)
Intimacy vs. Isolation (20 - 39 years)
Generativity vs. Stagnation (40 - 64 years)
Ego integrity vs. Despair (65 - death)

150
Q

____________
- cognitive framework for organizing & interpreting information

A

Schema

151
Q

Adaptation
- learning of skills necessary to adjust to the world
- __________ : processing of new info through existing schema
- __________ : adjustment to schema in dace of new info that cannot be assimilated by old schema

A

Assimilation
Accommodation

152
Q

____________
- desired internal state when schema is successful

A

Equilibrium

153
Q

Piaget’s 4 stages of Cognitive Development
1.
2.
3.
4.

A

Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
Pre-operational thought (2-7 years)
Concrete Operational (7-12 years)
Formal Operational (12-16 years)

154
Q

True or False
Piaget’s stages end at Adolescence unlike Erickson’s which continue through life

A

True

155
Q

Piaget’s Cognitive Development stage:
__________
- awareness of use of senses to understand world
- object permanence (object continues to exist when unseen)
- goal-directed behavior

A

Sensorimotor

156
Q

Piaget’s Cognitive Development stage:
__________
- thinking symbolically about objects/people not present
- Skills include classification (similarities/differences), seriation (organize in order), & conservation (size unchanged but shape changes)
- Obstacles include egocentrism (inability to understand perspective of others) & centration (focus on single aspect of a situation due to inability to see multiple aspects)

A

Pre-operational thought

157
Q

Piaget’s Cognitive Development stage:
__________
- logical thinking
- concrete thought but not abstract thought

A

Concrete Operational

158
Q

Piaget’s Cognitive Development stage:
__________
- abstract thought
- higher order reasoning

A

Formal Operational

159
Q

____________ of identity development
- identity formation influenced by social environment, culture, biology, motivation, parental attachment, & judgment

A

Social Factors

160
Q

____________ theory of sociocultural development
- sociocultural factors determine the direction of personality development & knowledge acquisition

A

Vygotsky’s theory of sociocultural development

161
Q

The most significant influence in sociocultural development is social interaction with __________, _________, & other adults

A

Parents & Teachers

162
Q

True of False
The use of language is important in the developmental process in sociocultural development

A

True

163
Q

__________ theory
- assigning explanations for behavior to contextualize

A

Attribution theory

164
Q

__________________
- ascribing internal characteristics to explain behavior of others rather than considering external explanations
- internal explanations like “stupid” or “inept”

A

Fundamental attribution error

165
Q

Perceptions & beliefs about ourselves influence ____________ we make about others

A

Attributions

166
Q

If we believe a person’s behavior is caused by environmental factors rather than by a personality trait then we tend to believe the person is (less OR more) likely to repeat the behavior

A

Less

167
Q

_________________
- can lead to misassumptions about reasons for actions of people from other cultures
- due to stereotypes or misunderstanding cultural expressions

A

Cultural differences

168
Q

____________
- negative opinion about a group based solely on discernable characteristics including race, gender, age, sexuality, or religious beliefs

A

Prejudice

169
Q

____________
- preference for a certain standpoint (as opposed to deeply help belief)
- bias inclines an individual toward certain behaviors or attitudes

A

Bias

170
Q

____________
- a commonly held generalization about a group of people

A

Stereotype

171
Q

____________
- sociologist Robert Merton defined this as a “false definition of the situation evoking a new behavior which makes the original false conception come true”

A

Self-fulfilling prophecy

172
Q

_________________
- apprehension experienced by individuals who fear that their behavior or performance will confirm a negative stereotype about their social group

A

Stereotype threat

173
Q

Culture & gender determine who can express specific _________ and when & which are acceptable

A

Feelings (emotions)

174
Q

____________
- social interactions guided by innate desire to leave a positive impression on other people
- individuals & social groups continually try to influence other people’s perceptions by choosing what info to share with others

A

Impression management

175
Q

____________ communication
- based on a language system (grammatical rules)
- includes spoken, written, & signed language

A

Verbal communication (linguistic)

176
Q

____________ communication
- not based on grammatical rules & conveys meaning through gestures, face, eye contact, posture, tone of voice, and touch

A

Nonverbal communication

177
Q

____________ communication
- less able to convey complexities
- primates & other animals able to understand some abstract vocabulary
- maintains social connections

A

Animal communication

178
Q

____________
- positive feelings held toward another & desire to be with another

A

Attraction

179
Q

____________
- behavior that threatens or causes physical and emotional harm
- verbal, physical, & psychological
- instrumental (achieve goal) & hostile (response to provocation)

A

Aggression

180
Q

____________
- extended long term bond between individuals
- feel need for being with each other
- separation results in anxiety

A

Attachment

181
Q

____________
- acting to benefit another regardless of consequences to self

A

Alturism

182
Q

____________
- network of family, friends, health care providers, & community resources that are essential to one’s physical and emotional health

A

Social support

183
Q

3 types of support :
__________, __________, & __________

A

Emotional, Material, & Appraisal

184
Q

____________
- conservative theoretical approach
- sees society as a harmoniously functioning whole with constituent parts working together to maintain societal equilibrium
- compares society to a living organism with its various parts functioning like biological systems to maintain society’s existence

A

Functionalism

185
Q

____________ theory
- views society as composed of 2 competing categories of people (those with power & those without power)
- postulates that conflict in society is generated by the powerful working to maintain their societal advantage while the powerless strive to acquire power
- unique among sociological paradigms in that it advocates for a sociologist’s active role in bringing about social equality

A

Conflict theory

186
Q

____________
- microlevel perspective focusing on interactions among individuals
- believes that the interactions among individuals shape society
- focuses on the symbols people use to interact with others & how these symbols are interpreted
- people are considered active participants in interactions

A

symbolic interactionalism

187
Q

____________
- believes that social reality is defined by the way individuals relate to that reality rather than by objective criteria (social construction of reality)
- EX: a coins meaning is defined by individuals agreeing that the coin has worth rather than by the coins metallic value

A

Social constructionism

188
Q

____________
- learned behaviors shared by a people

A

Culture

189
Q

____________ Culture
- physical objects created by society’s members

A

Material Culture

190
Q

____________ Culture
- nonmaterial elements of culture
- symbols, language, values, beliefs, norms, & rituals

A

Symbolic Culture

191
Q

____________
- objects, images, sounds, or actions that are associated with a meaning

A

Symbols

192
Q

____________
- a system of symbols that convey highly complex meanings

A

Language

193
Q

____________
- broad standards that define qualities important to a society

A

Values

194
Q

____________
- specific shared notions about what is true or false

A

Beliefs

195
Q

____________
- rules & regulations that guide the behaviors of society’s members

A

Norms

196
Q

____________
- deal with moral issues & have strong societal support

A

Mores

197
Q

____________
- have weaker support & carry less severe punishments for violators

A

Folkways

198
Q

____________
- established patterns of formal behavior conducted on special occasions

A

Rituals

199
Q

____________
- segments of society that share a set of value different from those of the wider society
- the most significant are based on factors like ethnicity, national origin, religion, or language
- others are based on interests or hobbies

A

Subcultures

200
Q

____________
- the process by which members of a subculture take on the characteristics of the dominant culture
- can help members of a subculture avoid prejudice & discrimination but at the cost of losing their cultural heritage & self-esteem

A

Assimilation

201
Q

____________
- an appreciation of cultural diversity
- reduces the pressure for members of subcultures to assimilate

A

Multiculturalism

202
Q

____________
- the life long process through which cultural values, beliefs, & norms are transmitted across generations

A

Socialization

203
Q

Agents of ____________
- Family, School, Peer group, Mass media, & Workplace

A

Agents of socialization

204
Q

____________
- performing actions that depart from & violate cultural norms
- labeling behavior or person as deviant affirms society’s values & norms

A

Deviance

205
Q

Punishments for violating cultural norms are mechanisms for ____________ (the way in which society attempts to regulate the behaviors of its members)

A

social control

206
Q

____________
- a strongly negative label that society associates with an individual
- acquired when deviant behavior is persistent
- changes the individuals self-concept & social identity
- stigmatized people may internalize negative label & become socially isolated

A

Stigma

207
Q

____________
- the process by which individuals modify their behavior in direct response to the influence of another person or group

A

Conformity

208
Q

____________ social influence
- individual’s behavior, appearance, beliefs, and/or values are influenced by the desire to act like others & be accepted
- most pronounced when group is important to individual (strength), when group is close in space & time (immediacy), or when there is a large number of people in the group (number)

A

Normative social influence

209
Q

____________ social influence
- individual is unsure how to act in a particular situation
- relies on info gained by observing others in similar situations

A

Informational social influence

210
Q

____________
- compliance with other people’s demands
- driven by a need to please others
- most people have been socialized to defer to authorities, experts, or other people in power positions to avoid punishment, embarrassment, or rejection

A

Obedience

211
Q

____________
- major areas of social life that meet or attempt to meet the needs of society’s members

A

Social institutions

212
Q

____________
- a social institution that transfers society’s knowledge to its members
- the quality received by a person is affected by factors such as class, race, ethnicity, & gender

A

Education

213
Q

_______ & _______ institutions
- serve to maintain the health & well-being of the members of a society
- different societies set different standard for acceptable health

A

Health & medical institutions

214
Q

The primary focus of _________ is meeting spiritual needs of society’s members

A

religion

215
Q

___________ separates the sacred from the profane (ordinary or mundane)

A

Religion

216
Q

The __________ is considered the basic unit of society

A

Family

217
Q

The __________ family plays a greater role in pre-industrialized societies than in industrialized ones
“includes parents, children, & kin”

A

extended family

218
Q

The __________ family plays a greater role in industrialized societies
- functionalists see the family as the backbone of society because of the family’s socialization & supportive functions
- conflict theory sees the family as the agent for perpetuating class, race, ethnic, & gender inequality
“1 or 2 parents & the children”

A

Nuclear Family

219
Q

____________
- functions to assign authority & guide society as a whole

A

Government

220
Q

The __________ serves to regulate the production, distribution, & consumption of society’s goods/services

A

economy

221
Q

True or False
Government & economy are closely related and particular forms of government ten to coexist with specific economic systems (monarchy with feudalism, democracy with capitalism, & communism with socialism)

A

True

222
Q

____________
- the exchange of actions among people in a society

A

Social interaction

223
Q

____________
- the social position that a person holds in a society

A

Status

224
Q

____________
- includes all of the status positions held by a particular person (professor bing middle aged being a parent & a coach)

A

Status set

225
Q

____________
- includes status that is given to a person at birth or later in life through little or no effort by that person

A

Ascribed status

226
Q

____________
- is voluntarily acquired through a person’s effort or lack of effort
- also a person’s occupation

A

Achieved status

227
Q

____________
- the expected behavior that is attached to a status

A

Role

228
Q

____________
- the various roles of a single status

A

role set

229
Q

____________
- the conflict between roles of a single status

A

role strain

230
Q

____________
- tension between roles of different statuses

A

role conflict

231
Q

____________
- 2 or more people who interact with & feel connected to each other

A

Social group

232
Q

____________ group
- characterized by close personal relationships
- interactions are ends in themselves & not means to another end (ex: family or peer group)

A

Primary group

233
Q

____________ group
- large group composed of impersonal relationships
- centered around a focused activity
- interactions are guided toward specific goals (ex: students in the same school & coworkers at a company)

A

Secondary group

234
Q

____________
- loose associations of people that often comprise many people over great distances

A

Network

235
Q

____________
- large secondary groups characterized by bureaucracy

A

Organizations

236
Q

____________
- model of organizations emphasizing rationality, hierarchy, specialization of skills, & impersonal rules and regulations

A

Bureaucracy

237
Q

____________
- statistical study of the characteristics of human populations
- ex: age, sex, race, immigrants, & ethnicity

A

Demography

238
Q

_________________ theory
- links societal transitions to technological changes
- pre-industrialization, industrialization, & post-industrialization

A

Demographic transition theory

239
Q

____________
- populations remain constant
- high birth rates (need for labor) & high death rates (low living standards)

A

Pre-industrialization

240
Q

____________
- population explosion
- decreased death rates (higher living standards) & birth rates remain high
- as it matures the birth & death rates fall due to medical advancements so only a steady growth in population

A

Industrialization

241
Q

____________
- slow population growth
- birth rates fall & death rates constant

A

Post-industrialization

242
Q

____________
- the number of births in a given population

A

Fertility

243
Q

____________
- the number of deaths in a given population

A

Mortality

244
Q

____________
- the movement of people ‘into’ a society’s land

A

Immigration

245
Q

____________
- the movement of people ‘out’ of a society’s land

A

Emigration

246
Q

____________
- collective push for social change or to maintain the status quo
- can culminate in war which lowers population due to fatalities & emigration

A

Social movement

247
Q

____________
- overall tendency for social processes to become increasingly more global & less territorial
- expected to expand in the foreseeable future

A

Globalization

248
Q

____________
- movement of people from rural areas to urban areas
- most advanced in developed countries but a strong trend in developing countries
- economics is affected by the excess of labor in the cities
- environment is affected by large paved land areas, lack of vegetation, & concentrated pollution from industry and transportation

A

Urbanization

249
Q

____________
- differences between layers of society distinguished by status, economics, power, & politics

A

Social stratification

250
Q

__________, __________, & __________ determine the extent to which people can maintain or improve their situation

A

Class, status, & power

251
Q

____________
- economic division between upper, middle, & lower income people

A

Class

252
Q

____________
- not necessarily based on wealth but on how others view one
- can be achieved by actions or through reputation
- in some societies it is primarily inherited

A

Status

253
Q

____________
- the ability to manipulate elements of society to one’s benefit
- some may achieve this without class standing or status, through their own actions

A

Power

254
Q

____________
- the cultural qualities that are valuable in improving social standing
- ex : education, intelligence, manner of dress, & manner of speech

A

Cultural Capital

255
Q

____________
- the social connections established by a person on which the person can draw to improve social standing

A

Social Capital

256
Q

____________
- the phenomenon in which social standing is preserved from one generation to the next
- both high & low standing are preserved through social reproduction
- responsible for the perpetuation of social inequality

A

Social reproduction

257
Q

____________
- the phenomenon in which some people have access to certain societal benefits through ascribed characteristics such as gender, race, & age
- granted through the values of others rather than earned
- people who benefit through their own actions & may not understand why others without it have not

A

Privilege

258
Q

____________
- the respect granted to someone because of their status, class, or power
- may or may not correlate with a person’s actions or attributes

A

Prestige

259
Q

True or False
Analyses of intersections with race, gender, & age reveal that the dynamics that result in class, power, & status in a society do not apply in the same way to all people

A

True

260
Q

____________
- the ability to move from 1 class or status to another
- can be downward or upward
- may or may not reflect a particular person’s abilities & skills

A

Social mobility

261
Q

____________
- changes in status that take place from 1 generation to the next
- can be improved by programs that support young children of lower-class families

A

Intergenerational mobility

262
Q

____________
- changes in status that occur within 1 generation
- correlated with an individual’s efforts & support programs aimed at adults
- legislation can support it by removing discriminatory laws

A

Intragenerational mobility

263
Q

____________
- improved status

A

Upward mobility

264
Q

____________
- decreased status
- a pervasive pattern of downward mobility for a group of people indicates that significant negative societal forces are acting on that group

A

Downward mobility

265
Q

____________
- the belief that people should benefit in proportion to their merits (abilities, skills, productivity, intelligence, & talent)
- stands in opposition to the belief that certain people are entitled to power or status by virtue of belonging to certain groups or heredity)
- favors upward mobility of oppressed groups (although members of those groups may need support to develop merits)
- discrimination prevents people from access to developing merits

A

Meritocracy

266
Q

True or False
Few if any societies can avoid having an impoverished class (affects the quality of life of middle & upper-class people)

A

True

267
Q

____________
- lack of basic necessities of life (food, clothing, shelter, & health care)

A

Absolute poverty

268
Q

____________
- lack of material wealth in relation to the average material wealth in a given society
- people may have basic necessities but cannot live as well as other in the society

A

Relative poverty

269
Q

____________
- the process by which certain groups are excluded from access to goods or services available to others
- keeps certain groups separate from mainstream society (segregation)
- simultaneously forces those groups into their own closed society (isolation)

A

Social exclusion

270
Q

____________ discrimination
- acts of discrimination committed by individuals

A

individual discrimination

271
Q

____________ discrimination
- discrimination built into the structure of many institutions including governmental, economic, religious, & educational institutional
- difficult to exchange because of inflexibility of institutional structures

A

Institutional discrimination

272
Q

____________
- discriminatory access to products/services based on location
- groups kept physically isolated by social exclusion may not have access to resources that people living in mainstream communities have

A

Spatial inequality

273
Q

____________
- certain groups are restricted in the areas in which they may live
- in the US, this occurs primarily because of discriminatory housing practices on the part of property owners

A

Residential segregation

274
Q

Segregated neighborhoods may not have the power to protect themselves from __________

A

pollution (environmental inequality)

275
Q

____________
- entire regions of the world lack adequate access to education, employment, health care, & basic necessities

A

Global inequalities

276
Q

____________
- primarily due to effects of discrimination & resulting lower socioeconomic status
- not due to racial characteristics
- significant differences among different racial groups in incidence of obesity, diabetes, stroke, heart disease, & cancer

A

Racial health disparities

277
Q

____________
- women tend to live longer than men
- women have less access to health care
- men are more likely to suffer from accidents & violence

A

Gender health disparities

278
Q

____________
- are related to socioeconomic status
- upper class has more & faster access to health care and better heath education

A

Class health disparities

279
Q

True or false
The same forces that create health disparities also affect access to health care

A

True

280
Q

True or False
A woman’s access to health care correlates to some extent with the attitudes of her family & community (more restrictive views of women’s roles may reduce access to health care & women may be less able to afford health care because of unequal income)

A

True

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