Psych/Soc 3 & 4 Flashcards
1
Q
What is the difference between self-concept and self-consciousness?
A
self-consciousness is merely awareness of oneself, self concept is the sum of an individual’s knowledge and understanding of his-herself. e.g. female, student, white, smart, future doctor, funny, etc
2
Q
self-schema
A
long lasting and stable set of memories that summarize a person’s beliefs, experiences and generalizations about the self,
3
Q
personal identity vs social identity
A
personal: one’s own sense of personal attributes e.g. smart, funny social: social definitions of who you are e.g. race, religion, gender, occupation, etc
4
Q
t/f: the “self” is a personal and social construction of beliefs
A
True
5
Q
Describe the features of the ADDRESSING framework
A
6
Q
self-reference effect
A
the tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves
7
Q
what happens more readily? internalizing an event that runs contrary to self concept or externalizing the event?
A
externalizing: allows us to attribute that thing to an outside factor, thereby protecting our self-concept.
if we internalize it, we are going to have to adjust our self-concept
8
Q
what are the 3 factors that impact an individuals self concept
A
- self efficacy: a belief in one’s own competence and effectiveness
-
locus of control: whether you believe you are able to influence outcomes through your own efforts and actions
- internal locus of control: belief that you are
- external locus of control: belief that outcomes are controlled by outside forces: can lead to learned helplessness
- self-esteem: one’s overall self-evaluation of one’s self-worth. related to self-efficacy in that if you are effective at an area that you value, your self-esteem will increase
9
Q
learned helplessness
A
when a person either has or acts like they lack of control over outcomes for long enough that they exhibit lack of action in other areas even when they have control over that situation
10
Q
What is the looking glass self
A
the theory that a persons’s sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions such that self concepts are based on their understanding of how others percieve them.
11
Q
social behaviorism
A
the idea that the mind and self emerge through the process of communicating with others
12
Q
socialization
A
the process through which people learn (or teach others) to be proficient and functional members of society. It is a lifelong process
13
Q
social sanctions
A
rewards or punishments for behaviors that are in accord with or against norms
e.g. a disapproving look by a stranger
14
Q
what’s the difference between norms and mores
A
mores are just more important norms because they are highly important for the benefit of society and are often strictly enforced
15
Q
folkways
A
are norms that are less important than mores but shape everyday behavior
e.g. ways of greeting
16
Q
taboo
A
behaviors that customs forbid, may be punishable or not but always elicit disgust for the violator
e.g. cannibalism
17
Q
anomie
A
“normlessness”
the condition in which individuals are not provided with firm guidelines in relation to norms and vlaues and there is minimal moral guidance or social ethic.
theory was developed by Emilie Durkheim
18
Q
anomie is more likely to occur in a society where__________________ predominates
A
individualism and autonomy
(even at the expense of the greater social order.)
19
Q
antinormative behavior (aka non-normative behavior)
A
when individuals do not conform to the expectations implicit in social structures. This is a form of deviance
20
Q
what is wrong with the label of deviant?
A
it is a social construct and is therefore not free of error. deviance is dependent on context and culture
21
Q
differential association
A
D for Deviant
a perspective that argues that deviance is a learned behavior resulting from interactions between individuals and their communities. deviance relies on learning the techniques and rationalizations of deviant behaviors from close personal groups:
according to the theory: individuals become deviant when their contacts with favorable atituteds towards deviance outweight their contacts with unfavorable attitudes
22
Q
labeling theory
A
a perspective that views deviance as a social construct and that the label of “deviant” we put on people increase that person’s deviant behavior. assumes the act in itself is not deviant.
within this view, labels are internalized and can cause people to exhibit the behavior prescribed by their label and have self-fulfilling prophecies/stereotype threat
23
Q
agents of social control
A
groups that have the power to attach stigmas to certain behaviors, typically the power groups and majorities
e.g. men in business attaching labels to working moms
24
Q
stereotype threat
A
when people are or feel themselves to be at risk of conforming to stereotypes about their social group.
25
structural strain theory
the perspective that states that deviance is a result of experiencing social strain in which there is a mismatch between the common scoial goals and the institutionalized means of obtaining these goals, causing pressure to use **deviant** means to avoid failure
e.g. someone born in a lower class my resort to drug-dealing to support herself
26
social institutions include all of the following EXCEPT:
1. social networks
2. families
3. schools
4. churches
A: social networks
because a social institution is a group of people with a shared purpose or origin but a network is not a group of people (they don't all know eachother)
27
Which of the following is not a macro theory of sociology
1. functionalism
2. conflict theory
3 feminist theory
4 symbolic interactionism
4 symbolic interactionism
28
how is power defined?
the ability to implement one's decisions despite opposition
29
collective behavior
describes the actions of people operating as a short-lived group. Collective behavior arises in spontaneous situations that may cause an individual to engage in an action that is otherwise socially unacceptable (unlike group behavior) In collective behavior, norms and mores are unclear, but this behavior can also be harmless actions like following a fad. Whether good or bad actions are a result, all collective bahavior is characterized by loss of the individual judgment in exchange for sense of the group.
It takes on 4 forms: crowds, publics, massess and social movements
30
Crowd vs public vs masses
**crowd**= a group that shares a purpose and can exchibit panic or mob behavior.
**public** = a group of individuals discussing a single issue. It begins when the discussion begins and ends when it ends.
**Masses=**a group whose formation is prompted through the efforts of mass media. Masses consist of large number of people who may or may not be in close proximity but still share common insterests
31
what is a social movement and what are the 2 subgroups
social movement is a kind of collective behavior scenario in which there is an intention of promoting change.
**2 types:**
1. active movements which attempt to foster social change
2. expressive moveemnts which attempt to foster individual change e.g. support groups
32
mass hysteria is an example of what kind of behavor?
collective behavior
33
agents of socialization
something that influences our lives and development of culture over time: family, school, peer groups, workplace, religion/government, mass media/technology
34
cultural assimilation
the process in which an individual forsakes aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture, usually this is a member of a minority attempting to conform to the culture of the dominant group.
This usually produces greater social integration and inclusion, BUT when it is forced assimilation, you get the opposite effect, more exclusion
35
amalgamation vs assimilation
amalgamation occurs when a majority and minority group combine to forma a new group with a unique cultural identity.
36
what is multiculturalism
a perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions. It promotes the ide of cultures coming together in a true melting pot rather than in a hierarchy.
it is under debate as to whether it empowers minorities or encourages segregation
37
What are the stages in Kohlberg's stages of moral development?
mnemonic: "we're motivated to be nice so St. Nicholas doesn't give us KOHL for christmas" This list is about the differences in intrinsic motivation for morality over the lifespan
1. **obedience** and punishment orientation
* "how can I avoid punishment?"
2. **self-interest** orientation
* "what's in it for me?"
3. **conformity** and interpersonal accord
* "what will make others like me?"
4. **social order** and authority orientation
* "what am I supposed to do?"
5. **social contract** orientation
* "the greatest good for the greatest number of people"
6. **ethics**: universal ethical principles (some people never reach this stage)
38
attribution theory
attempts to explain how individuals view their own and others' behavior as being attributable to external causes (situational attribution) or internal causes (dispositional attribution)
3 factors influence this attribution:
1. **consistency**: if the action is consistent with previous behavior for that individual, you would assign dispositional influence, if not, then situational
2. **Distinctiveness**: if the same behavior is displayed to everyone rather than benig distinct to just one person, then you would assign dispositional influence, if not, then situational
3. **Consensus:** if only that one person is angry rather than a group of people being angry, then you would assign dispositional influence, if not, then situational
39
fundemental attribution error
*Subgroup of Attributional Biases Category*
when we tend to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of a person's character or personality
e.g. we are more likely to say that a driver who cuts us off is a jerk (personality/internal) rather than assigning his behavior to an external factor such as she's rushing to see her dying mother
40
actor-observer bias
Subgroup of Attributional Biases Category
the tendency to attribute external forces to our actions and **behaviors** but internal forces to the actions and behavior of others.
e.g. when I cut someone off, I had a good reason, unlike everyone else
41
self-serving bias
Subgroup of Attributional Biases Category
Mnemonic: S for successes/failures - related to actor observer bias, but is more related to outcomes (ie successes and failures)
def: the tendency to attribute successes to ourselves and our failures to others or external forces.
42
Optimism bias
Subgroup of Attributional Biases Category
the belief that bad things happen to other people, not us
43
Just world phenomenon (aka just world hypothesis or just world belief)
Subgroup of Attributional Biases Category
the tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve. So when something bad happens to a person, we assume it's because of something they did rather than accepting that good things happen to bad people
e.g. "Karma will come back around"
44
halo effect
tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures rather than looking at individual characteristics.
e.g. he's nice so he must be a good dad
45
physical attractiveness stereotype
a specific type of halo effect. Describes how people tend to rate attractive individuals more favorably on personality traits and trustworthiness
46
What's an example of how culture affects attributional biases?
Western cultures tend to endorse individualistic attitudes and causes them to err on the side of internal attributions
Eastern cultures tend to err on the side of external attributions which causes them to see a situation very differently. (e.g. they would blame insider trading on the company to which the individual belongs rather than on the individual themselves)
47
social perception
the process whereby we try to understand others in our social world. It uses the information we selectively process about other people in order to understand their mindsets and intentions and allow us to predict a range of social phenomenon
different from social cognition the same way that perception of sensation differs from thinking about that perception
48
social cognition
different from social perception in that it refers to the ability of the brain to store and process information regarding social perception (it's at a more meta level)
49
false consensus
when we assume that everyone else agrees with what we do even when they may not
50
projection bias
when we assume that everyone has th same beliefs as us
it occurs because we have a tendency to look for similarities between people
51
prejudice
thoughts, attitudes, and feelings someone holds about a group that are not based on actual experience
e.g. an employer reading more resumes with white sounding names than black without being consciously aware of it
52
diff between prejudice and discrimintation ?
prejudice is a sentiment discrimination is an action
53
institutonal discrimination
unjust and discriminatory practices employed by a large organization that has been codified into operating procedures or institutional objectives
e.g. dont' ask don't tell policy
54
How does emotion play a role in prejudice
prejudice can be coming from a place of fear or frustration, which are emotions. The effect can be:
1. the tendency to direct that hostility at someone leading to forming scapegoats
2. or the activation of self-inhibition
55
scapegoat
a person at whom displaced aggression is directed
e.g. blaming the impoverished for an economic collapse or blaming the Jews for economic struggles preceding WW2
56
How does cognition play a role in prejudice?
cognition, in the form of information processing, conributes to bias in that we create conceptual categories (often formed in part by socialization and/or upbrining) in order to categorize and organize data based on similarities or differences; its an automatic shortcut that our brains like to take. When the conceptualization is based on similarity this can lead to stereotypes as well as the thinking that one member of a group is representative of that group.
57
ethnocentrism
when you judge people from another culture by the standards of one's own culture
58
cultural relativism
judging another culture by its own standards
this can be difficult to do especially when that culture clashes with one's own
59
group
a group is a collection of any number of individuals as few as 2 (called a dyad) who regularly interact and identify with eachother, share similar norms, values and expectations
60
primary vs secondary group
**Primary**: a group with whom an individualengages with in person and long-term. Serves expressive functions, meaning that it meets emotional needs. e.g. family
**Secondary**: a group wtih whom an individual engages with for more specific reasons and for shorter periods of time. They serve instrumental functinos, meaning, they meet pragmatic needs. e.g. study group
61
in group
a group that an individual belongs to and believes to be an integral part of who they are.
subgroup of both primary and secondary groups
62
outgroup
group to which you don't belong
63
reference group
a group that serves as a standard measure to which you compare yourself.
e.g. your peers who are also studying for the MCAT... whether or not you are in an ingroup with them or not.
64
What is it called when people share the same space with others but are not part of a group with them
aggregate
(there can still be groups within an aggregate, for example if your group is studying in a coffeeshop, the people in the coffee shop form an aggregate but you are still a group)
65
bureaucracy
an administrative body with members at different levels with different tasks, and the processes by which this body accomplishes its tasks.
66
McDonaldization
the process by which the principles of the fast-food restaurant such as rationalizing a task into its component parts, are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society.
The net effect is:
* efficiency
* calculability (assessing performance through output quantity or speed)
* predictability
* control (automation where possible)
67
iron rule/law of oligarchy
describes the paradoxical feature of bureaucracies that as they become more complex, they will inevitably become less revolutionary and less capable of adapting. This is because they are predicated on policies/procedures which are the antithesis of adaptation.
68
Does the mere presence of others have an effect on people's performance?
Yes.
People tend to perform **simple**, well-learned tasks better when other people are present.
People tend to perform **complex** or novel tasks more poorly when others are present
69
What is the Social Facilitation effect?
Descibres how people tend to perform differently because of the mere presence of others.
Simple, well-learned tasks better when other people are present.
People tend to perform complex or novel tasks more poorly when others are present
70
deindividuation
when people lose their individual identity in exchange for identifying with a group. Is the result of disconnect between behavior and attitudes, usually stemming from lack of self-awareness
The conditions for deindividuation to occur:
1. group size "lost in the crowd" feel
2. physical anonymity
3. arousing activities (ie escalating from a small start)
71
T/F: factors that reduce self-awareness increase a sense of deindividuation
TRUE
72
bystander effect
describes how a person is less likely to provide help/intervene in a situation whn there are bystanders
73
forced assimilation
the process in which an individual or group is forced to forsake aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture but in such a way that it does not lead to increased inclusion, but rather exclusion
This usually produces greater social integration and inclusion, BUT when it is forced assimilation, you get the opposite effect, more exclusion
74
social loafing
describes how a person is less likely to work hard on a project, the more people there are working on that project. (less effort when evaluated as a gorup)
75
group polarization
the tendency for the viewpoints in a group to get stronger upon interacting with others in that group
\*does not indivate that the group gets more divided necessarily
group polarization occurs as a result of:
1. **informational influence:** when the most common ideas to emerge are the ones that favor the dominant viewpoint which gives everyone in the group to researse a viewpoint that is in accord with what was just said
2. **normative influence:** when you want to be socially desireable so you expound on a view so that you can identify with a group more closely and be admireed.
76
informational influence aka informational social influence
when the most common ideas to emerge are the ones that favor the dominant viewpoint which gives everyone in the group to researse a viewpoint that is in accord with what was just said
compliance when we think others "know something I don't know"
77
normative influence aka normative social influence
when you want to be socially desireable so you expound on a view so that you can identify with a group more closely and be admireed.
78
groupthink
the tendency for people to not bring up dissenting opinions in an effort to not rock the boat
79
T/F: Deviance is always bad
False, some deviance is good
e.g. rosa parks
80
what are the 3 ways behavior may be motivated by social influences
1. compliance: motivated by punishment or reward
2. identification: motivated by the desire to be like another person or group
3. internalization: motivated by values and beliefs that have been integrated into a person's value system
81
status
a term that refers to any socially defined position in a society, whether ascribed or achieved
e.g. wife, student, doctor, disabled, resident of california, black
82
Master Status
the status that dominates over the other statuses for a given individual and determines that person's position in society
e.g. being a doctor or professional football player
83
what are the 3 components to attitudes?
ABCs
affect (feelings)
behavioral inclinations
cognition (beliefs)
84
role conflict vs role strain
**role conflict:** conflict in society's expectations for multiple statuses held by the same person
e.g. male nurse
**role strain:** the conflicting expectations of a single status
e.g. be a good student but don't be a know it all
85
social network
a web of social relationships
can be:
1. those in which a person is directly linked to others
2. those in which people are indirectly connected through others.
Social network theory states that there is great power in weak tie, e.g. someone is more likely to get a job from an acquaintance than a close friend
86
What are the types of organizations
aka formal organizations
1. Utilitarian: people get paid to be a part, e,g a business
2. Normative: people join and stay because of morally relevant goals e.g AA group
3. Coercive organizations: members do not have a choice in joining or staying e.g. prison
87
self-handicapping
a strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self blame when they do poorly.
e.g. not studying for a test so that you and others will blame your poor grade on external circumstances rather than raw intelligence (which is a characteristics that is pesumably more important to the individual).
88
dramaturgical perspective
the theory (stemming from symbolic interactionism) that we imagine ourselves playing certain roles when iteracting with others. Our identities are not fixed, but are dependent on our interactions with others
interaction is either:
**1. front stage:** we play a role and use impression management to craft the way we come across to other people. e.g. how you dress and act at work.
**2. back stage:** we can led down our guard and be ourselves. e.g. how you act and dress at home
89
T/F: aggression is more likely to occur in situations in which prior experience has led to aggression
true
90
T/F frustrating stimuli can lead to aggression
True, known as the frustratoin/aggression principle
91
social support
family support.
Has major effect on health outcomes
92
game theory
an evolutionary theory used to predict large complex systems such as overall behavior of a population.
e.g. using game theory to predict how a crowd might behave in an enclosed space in a disaster
93
what is the difference, according to George Mead, between the "I" and the "me"
Me= social self, awareness of what society thinks, the observed. The "me" has the power to influence how the "I" acts in social situations.
I= the observer, contemplates what the me brings to it using value system
94
inclusive fitness
defined by the number of offspring an organism has and how it supports its offspring
95
Infants have reflexes, of which there are 7. They are:
1. Moro (startle) - lasting 6 months
2. Rooting (in response to cheek touch baby will open mouth for nipple)
3. sucking - in response to anything touching roof of mouth, baby will begin to suck
4. Babinski reflex: in response to the sole of foot being touched, baby will move toes up and fanned
5. Tonic Neck - inresponse to its head being turned, baby will reach same side arm out and opposite side arm bends up at elbow
6. Palmar grasp - in response to stroking the baby's palm, baby's hand will grasp
7. Walking/stepping- in response to the soles of a baby's feet touching a flat surfacem they will attempt to walk by placing one foot in front of the other.
96
What are the 5 stages of motor development?
0-1 years: Reflexive
0-2: Rudimentary
2-7: fundamental
7-14: specialized movement
14+: Application of Movement
97
reflexive movements in babies are those which
serve to prime the neuromuscular system for more sophisticated movement to come
98
Rudimentary Movements (child development)
are the first voluntary movements such as rolling, sitting, crawling, standing, walking
99
The fundamental movement stage of childhood development
one in which the child is learning to manipulate his or her body through actions such as running, jumping, throwing. Highly influenced by environment, more so than others
100
specialized movement stage
child learns to combine the fundamental movements and starts to apply specific tasks.
101
application of movement stage
begins in adolescence and continues through adulthood: movements are refined and applied to normal daily activities
102
infantile amnesia
period from birth to 3.5 years in which we do not have conscious memories although we still use memoring to learn
103
Stranger anxiety occurs at ? months, whereas separation anxiety occurs at ? months
7-12 months
12
104
stranger anxiety in babies occurs because
babies have developed schemas for familiar faces and when a new face doesn't fit that schema, they get upset.
105
Which of the following is true regarding Stanley Milgram’s obedience experiments and Solomon Asch’s conformity experiments?
B. Stanley Milgram’s famous obedience experiment tested the effects of an authority figure on an individual’s behavior with a cleverly devised study that duped the subject into believing that he was administering real electric shocks to another individual while an authority figure urged him to continue on, even when he expressed concern. Solomon Asch’s famous conformity experiment tested the effects of peer pressure on behavior with a study where subjects were asked to select a specific line out of a set in the presence of others who all picked the wrong answer. Item I is true: Both experiments used confederates to create deception in their studies (choice C can be eliminated). Item II is true: Both experiments were testing how the presence of others has an impact on individual behavior (choice A can be eliminated). Item III is false: While Milgram was interested in examining the impact of obedience to authority on behavior, Asch was interested in examining the influence of conformity on behavior (choice D can be eliminated; choice B is correct).
106
homophily
Homophily is the tendency of individuals to associate and bond with others similar to themselves.
107
heterophily
Heterophily (the opposite of homophily) is the tendency of individuals to collect in diverse groups.
108
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
109
serial position effect
Short-term memory is more likely to retain pieces of information from the beginning and end of a list. This phenomenon is called the serial position effect.
don't confuse with recency and primacy effect
110
anterograde memory
memory of events after an event like a stroke ie new memories
\*anterograde amnesia is inability to form new memories
111
retrograde memory
refers to memories before an event
112
ambient stressor
Ambient stressors are those chronic environmental stressors that cannot be changed (or are perceived as unchangeable) by the efforts of the individual subject to them. Things like the economy and climate change would be examples of ambient stressors.
113
acute stressor
An acute stressor is one that is present over a short period of time. This does not apply to a persistent issue like the state of the economy.
114
mesolimbic pathway
aka reward pathway, is a pathway in the brain connecting the midbrain to the forebrain. It releases dopamine in response to rewarding stimuli, thus reinforcing behaviors that are perceived as pleasurable.
115
aversive conditioning
Aversive conditioning is a behavioral conditioning technique in which noxious stimuli are associated with undesirable or unwanted behaviors. If this technique is successful, the individual reduces the frequency of the unwanted behavior.
116
operant conditioning
In operant conditioning, extinction refers to the decline of an operant response when it is no longer reinforced. For example, a child who climbs onto a table, a response which has been reinforced by attention, is subsequently ignored until the attention-seeking behavior no longer occurs.
117
psychoanalytic theory posits that:
personality is shaped by a person's unconscious thoughts, feelings and memories in such a way that a person's consious awareness plays a limited role compared to their unconscious
118
Sigmund Freud was the founder of which theory
psychoanalytic theory
119
according to Freud's iteration of psychoanalytic theory, the 2 instinctual drives that motivate human behavior are:
**libido (life force)** - responsible for behaviors focused on survial, growth, creativity, pain avoidance and pleasure
**death instinct -** responsible for behaviors fueld by an unconscious wish to die or hurt others
120
Freud: psychic energy is distributed among 3 personality components that function in concert. They are:
1. **"Id":** source of energy and instincts, largely unconscious
2. **"Ego":** ruled by logical thinking and exerts control ovr the id and consciousness. The ego tries to find realistic ways to satisfy the Id's desires
3. **Superego:** inhibits the id and influenzes the ego to follow morals and idealistic goals rather than just realistic. Motivated by feelings of pride (psychological rewards) and guilt (psychological punishments)
121
according to Frued, anxiety is ?
a feeling that occurs when a person begins to become aware of repressed feelings memories or desires. To protect against this, we develop **ego defense mechanisms**
122
The ego defense mechanism known as reaction formation is
expressing the opposite of what one really feels when it would feel too dangerous to express the real feeling
e.g. acting mean towards someone you are sexually attracted to
123
The ego defense mechanism known as displacement is
redirecting aggressive or sexual impulses from a forbidden action or object onto a less dangerous one
e.g. going home and kicking your dog instead of punching your coworker
124
The ego defense mechanism known as rationalization is
explaining and intellectually justifying one's impulsive behavior
125
The ego defense mechanism known as regression is
reverting to an earlier less sophisticated behavior in response to a trauma
126
The ego defense mechanism known as sublimation is
channeling aggressive or sexual energy into positive, constructive activities such as producing art
127
whereas Freud had a theory of developmental stages known as \_\_\_1\_\_\_, Erikson had a theory of developmental stages known as \_\_\_\_\_2\_\_\_
1. psychosexual
2. psychosocial
128
Freud's psychosexual stages have the mnemonic "Ooh, Aah, Please, Lick, my Genitals"
What are they?
1. Oral: 0-1 yr
2. Anal: 1-3 yrs
3. Phallic: 3-6 yrs
4. Latency: 6-12 yrs
5. Genital: 12+
129
what happen's during Freud's latency stage?
sexual interests subside and the individual pursues school, friends and sports
130
Erikson's psycosocial stages are described as 2 opposed inclinations e.g. A vs B. what are they?
1. **Infancy** 0-1: Trust vs mistrust
2. **Early childhood** 1-3: Autonomy vs doubt and shame
3. **Preschool** age 3-6: Initiative vs guilt
4. **School age** 6-12: industry vs inferiority
5. **Adolescence**: 12-18: Identity vs role confusion
6. **Young adulthood** 18-35: Intimacy vs isolation
7. **Middle age** 35-60: generativity vs stagnation
8. **Later life** 60+: integrity vs despair
131
in contrast to the psychoanalytic theory, the humanistic theory focuses on
healthy personality development and relies on the idea that people are essenially good and are all essentially motivated by the **actualizing tendency:** the drive to maintain and enhance the organism
132
As developed by Carl Rogers, humanistic theory posits that:
People choose actions that are consistent with their self-concepts and they feel incongruence if they experiences something that contradicts their self-concepts. In the developmental stages, a child will internalize (introject) caregivers' values and take them on as their own self concept, despite the presence of the child's unconscious true values, which still remain.
The discrepancy between conscious introjected values and unconscious true values is the root of psychopathology.
133
the behavioristic perspective posits that
personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on deterministic environmental conditioning: operant or classical.
\*children begin as blank slates
134
what's the difference between operant and classical conditioning?
**operant**: an operant is a person's action or behavior that operates on the environment and produces consequencecs that are either positive or negative reinforcements or punishments.
**classical:** (pavlovian): forming an association between two stimuli resulting in a learned response that was not present before e.g. developing a phobia
135
What are the differences between positive vs negative reinforcement and positive vs negative punishment
136
what are the 3 major therapy types?
137
Maslow's Hierarchy of needs
138
trait theorists differentiate between ___ and ___ traits
**source and surface**
**source:** factors underlying human personality and behavior e/g/ exroversion and introversion (factor analysis has reduced the number of souce traits to 5 global factors)
**surface:** behavioral, adjectives for describing human behavior e,g, talkative vs quiet (factor analysis has reduced the number of possible surface traits to 16, called primary factors)
^ each source/global factor is paired with 4-5 surface/primary traits
139
How do the global/primary trait model (by Cattell) and OCEAN model compare?
140
what biological region could be responsible for differences in extroversion between people
reticular formation
because it mediates arousal and consciousness
141
what biological region could be responsible for differences in neuroticism between people
limbic system because it mediates emotion and memory
142
low dopamine activity corresponds with higher
1. impulsivity
2. risk avoidance
3. approval seeking
1. impulsivity
143
Low norepinephrine activity corresponds to higher
1. impulsivity
2. risk avoidance
3. approval seeking
3. approval seeking
144
low serotonin activity correlates with higher
1. impulsivity
2. risk avoidance
3. approval seeking
2. risk avoidance
145
T/F: research suggests that people act with perfect consistency according to their personalities
False
personalities are consistent but behavior is not. Most often people moderate their behavior based on social cues
The average behavior of an individual is the best way to actually determine their personality
146
T/F: Instict is learned
false. Instincts are behaviors that are unlearned and present in fixed patterns throughout a species (they represent the contribution of genes, hich predispose a certain species to particular behaviors)
147
what are the 4 factors that influence motivation?
1. **instincts:** unlearned pattern of behavior based on your species
2. **drives & negative feedback systems:** drive **=** urge arising from a physiological discomfort
3. **arousal**: motivation to be reach optimal level of arousal (intellectual and otherwise)
4. **needs**: includes biologicacl needs but also need for higher order things like financial safety, belonging, or achievement
148
Drive reduction theory
that we are motivated to reduce certain drives through behaviors
the drive is seen as a negative aroused state that moves an organism to reduce that state
e.g. hunger is a negative aroused state that moves us to resolve that drive by eating.
149
incentive theory
external stimuli such as objects or events that are positive or negative, motivating us to act or not act
e.g. you get a job offer and the pay is better but the work hours are worse. These would pose positive and negative incentives, respectively
150
what is the value of Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
1. it suggests accurately that not all needs are equal to a person
2. it accounts for higher order needs such as self-actualization, which other theories don't
151
what structure is responsible for regulating body temp
hypothalamus
152
example of how our behavior and negative feedback work in tandem to maintain homeostasis
heat → we stretch out to maximize surface area, shed layers of clothing and seek shade → these changes physiologically reduce body temp
153
_higher/lower levels or both higher and lower levels_ on maslows hierarchy are imacted by sociocultural differences
_both higher and lower levels_
154
prevelence of psychological disorders in the US
1 in 4
155
psychological disorder def
a set of behavioral or psychological symptoms that is not in keeping with social norms and that is severe enough to cause significant personal distress or impariment in social occupational or personal functioning.
diagnosis is based on:
* symptom quantity and severity
* impact on functioning
156
Biopsychosocial approach
an approach that posits that there are 3 overlapping contributions to mental health although not every mental health problem is a result of an overlap of all 3 or even 2 at a time. These factors are:
1. biological
2. psychological
3. sociocultural
157
158
psychoanalytic theory of personality and who were the theorists
that personality is shaped by a person's unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories, derived from past experiences
_Major thinkers in this theory:_
1. Freud
* 5 psycho**sexual** stages
2. Erik Erikson
* 8 psycho**social** stages
159
what 2 instinctual drives motivate human behavior according to psychoanalytic theory?
**death instinct**: the unconscious wish to die or hurt others drives aggressive behaviors
**libido instinct**: life instince drives behaviors focused on survival, growth, creativity, pain avoidance and pleasure
160
according to psychoanalysts, personality has what 3 components?
**ego:** controls consciousness and the id. The realistic one
**superego**: inhibits the id and influences the ego to follow moralistic and idealistic goals rather than just materialistic ones. seeks feelings of pride and self love and avoids feelings of guilt and inferiority
**id:** nearly all unconscious, the source of instincts and energy. Ruled by the pleasure principle and does not concern itself with morality
161
Panic disorder
ANXIETY DISORDER
a perons has had at least one panic attack and is concerned about having more. attacks can be triggered but are more often unpredictable and spontaneous
162
social anxiety disorder aka social phobia
ANXIETY DISORDER
an unreasonable feer of feeling embarrased while one is seen or watched by others, even while performing routine activities such as eating
163
specific phobia
ANXIETY DISORDER
a persistent strong and unreasonable fear of certain object or situation.
Types: situational, natural, blood-injection-injury, animal
164
in OCD, compulsions are
repeated physical or mental behaviors that are performed in response to an **obsession** or in accordance with a set of rules done in order to reduce anxiety, often done despite the person's awarenes that it is unreasonable
165
in OCD, obsessions are
repeated intrusive uncontrollable thoughts or impulses that cause distress or anxiety. Often the person knowns they are irrational but still responds through a **compulsion**
166
Classical conditioning refers to learning as a result of pairing an unconditioned stimulus with a conditioned stimulus as in Pavlov's dog
does the unconditioned stimulus have to be positive?
no, in fact, if it is, then that would probably be considered positive reinforcement
167
the classical conditioning theory of *spontaneous recovery* refers to ?
a phenomenon that occurs when an animal/person will produce the conditioned response in response to the conditioned stimulus even after a period of both extinction and delay as follows:
In **extinction**, the conditioned stimulus is presented consistently without the unconditioned stimulus, and, eventually, the conditioned stimulus loses its excitatory power.
However, if, after a **delay** wherein the conditioned stimulus is not presented either, the conditioned stimulus is presented again, it will elicit the conditioned response.
168
What are social schemas?
cognitive structures that guide the information processing of ideas about categories of social events and people. When a social schema is made more accessible through priming, it can be activated and used more quickly in a particular situation.
e.g. In a study, subjects' social schemas regarding African Americans were made accessible by priming them with stereotypic African American trait words. This is evident by the control group subjects' significantly faster categorization of African American photos after being primed with stereotypic trait words which is a cognitive phenomenon
169
T/F: individuals afflicted with brain damage or a dementia, such as Alzheimer's disease, often engage in confabulation in order to fill in the gaps left by lost memories.
true
170
Feature-detection theory is what?
a theory of visual perception that proposes that different neurons fire in response to detecting different features; in other words, some neurons fire only in response to vertical lines or motion or contrast. Feature-detection theory cannot explain how verbal insight problems most likely activate the wrong set of internal representations because these problems are word-based and not image-based.
171
What is the spreading activation model
it posits that the mind maintains networks of words that are associated with each other to varying degrees. When one word is activated, those words with the strongest associations to the activated word are also activated.
e.g. The way verbal insight problems use words that lead to incorrect activations is best explained by the spreading activation model
172
hypervigilance commonly occurs with what type of psychological disorder?
PTSD
173
acute stress disorder is different from PTSD how?
length of duration is less than 1 month
PTSD has to be occuring for a month at least in order to have a diagnosis
174
somatic symptom disorder
a psychological disorder in which someone is distressed due to persistent physical symptoms that are not rooted in any pathophysiology
175
what are the disorders related to somatic symptom disorder?
1. **illness anxiety disorder**: distress is related more to fear of illness rather than actual physical symptoms (somatic aspect not central)
2. **conversion disorder:** when an emotional disturbence converts to a physical symptom. e.g. blindness but with blink reflex intact
3. **factitious disorder:** when someone falsifies evidence of a fabricated injury or illness (e.g. by self inflicted injury or inflicted on another) in order to substantiate the claim/feeling
176
symptoms of Schizophrenia spectrum
delusions,
hallucinations,
disorganized thinking,
disorganized or abnormal motor behavior,
decreased emotional expressiveness,
lack of motivation,
decreased or absent speech
177
T/F: dissociative identity disorder involves amnesia/loss of awareness for one or more of the personality states
true
178
which psychological disorders have bases in biology, ie are nervous system disorders?
Schizophrenia
Depression
179
what group of psychological disorders do the following belong to?
1. delusional disorder
2. brief psychotic disorder
3. schizoaffective disorder
schizophrenia spectrum
180
what are the types of depressive disorders?
**major depressive disorder:** when one has suffered more than one major depressive episode
**persistent depressive disorder (aka dysthymic disorder or dysthymia):** when someone experiences milder symptoms most days for at least 2 years without major depressive episode
**premenstural dysphoric disorder:** when the typical symptoms of major depressive episode are present but intesify before the onset of menses
181
which of the two is both a psychotic disorder and a personality disorder:
schizotypal or schizoid
schizotypal
182
a person who is irrational, withdrawn, cold and/or suspicious could most likely belong to which of the following groupings of personality disorders
1. paranoid, schizoid, scizotypal
2. antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic
3. avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive
1. paranoid, schizoid, scizotypal
183
a person who is tense, anxious, and/or over-controlled could most likely belong to which of the following groupings of personality disorders?
1. paranoid, schizoid, scizotypal
2. antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic
3. avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive
3. avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive
184
a person who is emotional, dramatic, attention-seeking, intense could most likely belong to which of the following groupings of personality disorders?
1. paranoid, schizoid, scizotypal
2. antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic
3. avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive
2. antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic
185
what characterizes obsessive-compulsive disorders?
a pattern of obsessive thoughts coupled with maladaptive behavioral compulsions. disorders in this category are:
1. OCD,
2. body dysmorphic disorder,
3. hoarding disorder
186
what characterizes somatic symptom disorders?
symptoms that cannot be explained by medical condition or drugs. disorders in this category are:
1. somatic symptom disorder (proper)
2. illness anxiety disorder
3. conversion disorder
4. factitious disorder (self imposed or by proxy)
187
what characterizes bipolar related disorders
cyclic mood swings (manic followed by depressive followed by manic etc)
disorders in this category are:
1. Bipolar I: at least 1 manic or mixed episode
2. Bipolar II: manic phases less extreme and must have experienced 1+ major depressive episodes
3. Cyclothymic disorder
188
what characterizes psychotic disorders?
loss of contact with reality
disorders in this category are:
1. schizophrenia (>6 months sxs)
2. schizophreniform disorder (<6 months of sxs)
3. schizoaffective disorder
4. delusional disorder
5. brief psychotic disorder: positive sxs only, <1 mo
189
what characterizes dissociative disorders?
disruptions in memory, awareness, identity, or perception.
disorders in this category are:
1. dissociative identity disorder: 2 distinct personalities
2. dissociative amnesia
3. depersonalization disorder: out of body experience
190
dissociative amnesia is
episode of forgetting personal information or events usually because of trauma. usually the amnesia is localized to memories from one time period or occasion.
191
T/F: dissociative disorders are also personality disorders
false
192
what characterizes personality disorders?
enduring maladaptive patterns of behavior and cognition that departs from social norms.
disorders in this category are: (each with the suffix - personality disorder)
1. paranoid
2. schizoid
3. schizotypal\*
4. antisocial
5. borderline
6. histrionic
7. narcissistic
8. avoidant
9. dependent
10. obsessive compulsive\*
\*cross-linked to other category in DSM
193
difference between:
paranoid personality disorder
vs
generalized anxiety disorder or panic disorder
paranoid personality disorder: characterized by suspicion rather than fear
generalized anxiety disorder or panic disorder: characterized by excessive fear
194
difference between OCD and OCPD
OCPD = obsessive compulsive personality disorder
even though they are cross linked in DSM,
OCD is characterized by true repetitive behavior and compulsions based on a sense of necessity
OCPD is characterized by obsesssive behavior that is more based on preference/tendency than necessity from the perspective of the individual
195
histrionic personality disorder is
someone who strongly desires to be the center of attention. Other attributes:
1. dramatic displays of emotion
2. belief that one's relationships are more intimate than they are
3. may resort to seduction and changes in physical appearance to maintain attention
196
borderline personality disorder is characterized by
enduring instability in impulse control and mood
197
avoidant personality disorder vs antisocial personality disorder
**avoidant personality disorder:** feels inadequate or inferior and generallyl avoids interactions for fear of being unliked
**antisocial personality disorder:** someone with a history of serious abnormal behaviors such as aggression, deliberate illegal behavior, and/or lack of remorse for actions that hurt others. typically since age 15
198
narcissistic personality disorder vs histrionic personality behavior
**narcissistic**: doesn't necessarily want attention but feels overly self-important
**histrionic**: wants attention but does not necessarily feel overly self-important
199
what hypotheses/evidence support the fact that Schizophrenia has a biological basis?
1. **genetic studies** done on twins have shown that the other twin has a 50% chance of being schizophrenic if her twin was
2. **stress-diathesis theory**: genetics can give a predisoposition to schizophrenia but stressors are what elicit the onset of the disease
3. **dopamine hypothesis:** pathway for dopamine is overactive in people with schizophrenia
4. **decrease** in size or activity of brain regions
200
what hypotheses/evidence support the fact that depression has a biological basis?
1. diminished functioning of neurotransmitter pathways for:
## Footnote
**dopamine**
**serotonin**
**norepinephrine**
201
anterograde amnesia vs retrograde amnesia
**anterograde**: inability to form new memories
**retrograde**: degredation of past memories going from most recent → distant
202
what is the biological basis for Alzheimer's disease
1. formation of plaques in tissue of the cortex
2. abnormal activity of neurotransmitter acetylcholine in hippocampus
203
which form(s) of memory loss are present in someone with Alzheimer's disease?
anterograde
retrograde
both
both
204
Parkinson's disease is caused by
death of cells that generate dopamine in the basal ganglia and substantia nigra
205
what's the reasoning behind stem cell-based therapy to regenerate neurons in the central nervous system
stem cells have the capacity to differentiate into any of the cell types in the nervous system.
Evidence shows that neural stem cells can migrate and replace dying neurons in the CNS. This is promising for :
**Huntingtons**
**Alzheimers**
**Parkinsons**
**MS**
206
ABCs of attitude
A: affect (emotion)
B: behavioral tendencies
C: cognition
207
in what situations are attitudes most likely to predicit behavior?
1. when social situations are reduced
2. when general patterns rather than specific behaviors are observed principle of aggregation: attitude reflects our average behavioral tendency rather than each individual act
3. when an attitude is specific to the behaviorrather than too generalized to provide predictive capacity
4. when an individual has more time to self-reflect before acting
208
in what ways can behavior affect attitudes rather than the normal other way around
1. **role playing:** fake it till you make it, can be placed on you involuntarily or chosen.. either way the net effect is the same
2. **Public declaration.**
3. **Justification of effort:** you are more likely to feel strongly compelled to do something that you have already invested in (in terms of money, time, or emotion) *you can also use this tactic on others, called the foot in the door phenomenon
209
cognitive dissonance theory
posits that when our attitudes and behavior don't match, we experience unpleasant feeling of tension and take actions or adjust our attitudes so that attitudes and behaviors align in order to reduce the tension
210
