Psych/Soc 3 & 4

Question 1

What is the difference between self-concept and self-consciousness?

Answer 1

self-consciousness is merely awareness of oneself, self concept is the sum of an individual’s knowledge and understanding of his-herself. e.g. female, student, white, smart, future doctor, funny, etc

Question 2

self-schema

Answer 2

long lasting and stable set of memories that summarize a person’s beliefs, experiences and generalizations about the self,

Question 3

personal identity vs social identity

Answer 3

personal: one’s own sense of personal attributes e.g. smart, funny social: social definitions of who you are e.g. race, religion, gender, occupation, etc

Question 4

t/f: the “self” is a personal and social construction of beliefs

Answer 4

True

Question 5

Describe the features of the ADDRESSING framework

Answer 5

Question 6

self-reference effect

Answer 6

the tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves

Question 7

what happens more readily? internalizing an event that runs contrary to self concept or externalizing the event?

Answer 7

externalizing: allows us to attribute that thing to an outside factor, thereby protecting our self-concept.

if we internalize it, we are going to have to adjust our self-concept

Question 8

what are the 3 factors that impact an individuals self concept

Answer 8

1. self efficacy: a belief in one’s own competence and effectiveness
2. locus of control: whether you believe you are able to influence outcomes through your own efforts and actions
   
   • internal locus of control: belief that you are
   • external locus of control: belief that outcomes are controlled by outside forces: can lead to learned helplessness
3. self-esteem: one’s overall self-evaluation of one’s self-worth. related to self-efficacy in that if you are effective at an area that you value, your self-esteem will increase

Question 9

learned helplessness

Answer 9

when a person either has or acts like they lack of control over outcomes for long enough that they exhibit lack of action in other areas even when they have control over that situation

Question 10

What is the looking glass self

Answer 10

the theory that a persons’s sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions such that self concepts are based on their understanding of how others percieve them.

Question 11

social behaviorism

Answer 11

the idea that the mind and self emerge through the process of communicating with others

Question 12

socialization

Answer 12

the process through which people learn (or teach others) to be proficient and functional members of society. It is a lifelong process

Question 13

social sanctions

Answer 13

rewards or punishments for behaviors that are in accord with or against norms

e.g. a disapproving look by a stranger

Question 14

what’s the difference between norms and mores

Answer 14

mores are just more important norms because they are highly important for the benefit of society and are often strictly enforced

Question 15

folkways

Answer 15

are norms that are less important than mores but shape everyday behavior

e.g. ways of greeting

Question 16

taboo

Answer 16

behaviors that customs forbid, may be punishable or not but always elicit disgust for the violator

e.g. cannibalism

Question 17

anomie

Answer 17

“normlessness”

the condition in which individuals are not provided with firm guidelines in relation to norms and vlaues and there is minimal moral guidance or social ethic.

theory was developed by Emilie Durkheim

Question 18

anomie is more likely to occur in a society where__________________ predominates

Answer 18

individualism and autonomy

(even at the expense of the greater social order.)

Question 19

antinormative behavior (aka non-normative behavior)

Answer 19

when individuals do not conform to the expectations implicit in social structures. This is a form of deviance

Question 20

what is wrong with the label of deviant?

Answer 20

it is a social construct and is therefore not free of error. deviance is dependent on context and culture

Question 21

differential association

Answer 21

D for Deviant

a perspective that argues that deviance is a learned behavior resulting from interactions between individuals and their communities. deviance relies on learning the techniques and rationalizations of deviant behaviors from close personal groups:

according to the theory: individuals become deviant when their contacts with favorable atituteds towards deviance outweight their contacts with unfavorable attitudes

Question 22

labeling theory

Answer 22

a perspective that views deviance as a social construct and that the label of “deviant” we put on people increase that person’s deviant behavior. assumes the act in itself is not deviant.

within this view, labels are internalized and can cause people to exhibit the behavior prescribed by their label and have self-fulfilling prophecies/stereotype threat

Question 23

agents of social control

Answer 23

groups that have the power to attach stigmas to certain behaviors, typically the power groups and majorities

e.g. men in business attaching labels to working moms

Question 24

stereotype threat

Answer 24

when people are or feel themselves to be at risk of conforming to stereotypes about their social group.

Question 25

structural strain theory

Answer 25

the perspective that states that deviance is a result of experiencing social strain in which there is a mismatch between the common scoial goals and the institutionalized means of obtaining these goals, causing pressure to use deviant means to avoid failure

e.g. someone born in a lower class my resort to drug-dealing to support herself

Question 26

social institutions include all of the following EXCEPT:

1. social networks
2. families
3. schools
4. churches

Answer 26

A: social networks

because a social institution is a group of people with a shared purpose or origin but a network is not a group of people (they don’t all know eachother)

Question 27

Which of the following is not a macro theory of sociology

1. functionalism
2. conflict theory

3 feminist theory

4 symbolic interactionism

Answer 27

4 symbolic interactionism

Question 28

how is power defined?

Answer 28

the ability to implement one’s decisions despite opposition

Question 29

collective behavior

Answer 29

describes the actions of people operating as a short-lived group. Collective behavior arises in spontaneous situations that may cause an individual to engage in an action that is otherwise socially unacceptable (unlike group behavior) In collective behavior, norms and mores are unclear, but this behavior can also be harmless actions like following a fad. Whether good or bad actions are a result, all collective bahavior is characterized by loss of the individual judgment in exchange for sense of the group.

It takes on 4 forms: crowds, publics, massess and social movements

Question 30

Crowd vs public vs masses

Answer 30

crowd= a group that shares a purpose and can exchibit panic or mob behavior.

public = a group of individuals discussing a single issue. It begins when the discussion begins and ends when it ends.

Masses=a group whose formation is prompted through the efforts of mass media. Masses consist of large number of people who may or may not be in close proximity but still share common insterests

Question 31

what is a social movement and what are the 2 subgroups

Answer 31

social movement is a kind of collective behavior scenario in which there is an intention of promoting change.

2 types:

1. active movements which attempt to foster social change
2. expressive moveemnts which attempt to foster individual change e.g. support groups

Question 32

mass hysteria is an example of what kind of behavor?

Answer 32

collective behavior

Question 33

agents of socialization

Answer 33

something that influences our lives and development of culture over time: family, school, peer groups, workplace, religion/government, mass media/technology

Question 34

cultural assimilation

Answer 34

the process in which an individual forsakes aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture, usually this is a member of a minority attempting to conform to the culture of the dominant group.

This usually produces greater social integration and inclusion, BUT when it is forced assimilation, you get the opposite effect, more exclusion

Question 35

amalgamation vs assimilation

Answer 35

amalgamation occurs when a majority and minority group combine to forma a new group with a unique cultural identity.

Question 36

what is multiculturalism

Answer 36

a perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions. It promotes the ide of cultures coming together in a true melting pot rather than in a hierarchy.

it is under debate as to whether it empowers minorities or encourages segregation

Question 37

What are the stages in Kohlberg’s stages of moral development?

Answer 37

mnemonic: “we’re motivated to be nice so St. Nicholas doesn’t give us KOHL for christmas” This list is about the differences in intrinsic motivation for morality over the lifespan

1. obedience and punishment orientation
   
   • “how can I avoid punishment?”
2. self-interest orientation
   
   • “what’s in it for me?”
3. conformity and interpersonal accord
   
   • “what will make others like me?”
4. social order and authority orientation
   
   • “what am I supposed to do?”
5. social contract orientation
   
   • “the greatest good for the greatest number of people”
6. ethics: universal ethical principles (some people never reach this stage)

Question 38

attribution theory

Answer 38

attempts to explain how individuals view their own and others’ behavior as being attributable to external causes (situational attribution) or internal causes (dispositional attribution)

3 factors influence this attribution:

1. consistency: if the action is consistent with previous behavior for that individual, you would assign dispositional influence, if not, then situational
2. Distinctiveness: if the same behavior is displayed to everyone rather than benig distinct to just one person, then you would assign dispositional influence, if not, then situational
3. Consensus: if only that one person is angry rather than a group of people being angry, then you would assign dispositional influence, if not, then situational

Question 39

fundemental attribution error

Answer 39

_{<strong>Subgroup of Attributional Biases Category</strong>}

when we tend to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of a person’s character or personality

e.g. we are more likely to say that a driver who cuts us off is a jerk (personality/internal) rather than assigning his behavior to an external factor such as she’s rushing to see her dying mother

Question 40

actor-observer bias

Answer 40

_{<strong>Subgroup of Attributional Biases Category</strong>}

the tendency to attribute external forces to our actions and behaviors but internal forces to the actions and behavior of others.

e.g. when I cut someone off, I had a good reason, unlike everyone else

Question 41

self-serving bias

Answer 41

_{<strong>Subgroup of Attributional Biases Category</strong>}

Mnemonic: S for successes/failures - related to actor observer bias, but is more related to outcomes (ie successes and failures)

def: the tendency to attribute successes to ourselves and our failures to others or external forces.

Question 42

Optimism bias

Answer 42

_{<strong>Subgroup of Attributional Biases Category</strong>}

the belief that bad things happen to other people, not us

Question 43

Just world phenomenon (aka just world hypothesis or just world belief)

Answer 43

_{<strong>Subgroup of Attributional Biases Category</strong>}

the tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve. So when something bad happens to a person, we assume it’s because of something they did rather than accepting that good things happen to bad people

e.g. “Karma will come back around”

Question 44

halo effect

Answer 44

tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures rather than looking at individual characteristics.

e.g. he’s nice so he must be a good dad

Question 45

physical attractiveness stereotype

Answer 45

a specific type of halo effect. Describes how people tend to rate attractive individuals more favorably on personality traits and trustworthiness

Question 46

What’s an example of how culture affects attributional biases?

Answer 46

Western cultures tend to endorse individualistic attitudes and causes them to err on the side of internal attributions

Eastern cultures tend to err on the side of external attributions which causes them to see a situation very differently. (e.g. they would blame insider trading on the company to which the individual belongs rather than on the individual themselves)

Question 47

social perception

Answer 47

the process whereby we try to understand others in our social world. It uses the information we selectively process about other people in order to understand their mindsets and intentions and allow us to predict a range of social phenomenon

different from social cognition the same way that perception of sensation differs from thinking about that perception

Question 48

social cognition

Answer 48

different from social perception in that it refers to the ability of the brain to store and process information regarding social perception (it’s at a more meta level)

Question 49

false consensus

Answer 49

when we assume that everyone else agrees with what we do even when they may not

Question 50

projection bias

Answer 50

when we assume that everyone has th same beliefs as us

it occurs because we have a tendency to look for similarities between people

Question 51

prejudice

Answer 51

thoughts, attitudes, and feelings someone holds about a group that are not based on actual experience

e.g. an employer reading more resumes with white sounding names than black without being consciously aware of it

Question 52

diff between prejudice and discrimintation ?

Answer 52

prejudice is a sentiment discrimination is an action

Question 53

institutonal discrimination

Answer 53

unjust and discriminatory practices employed by a large organization that has been codified into operating procedures or institutional objectives

e.g. dont’ ask don’t tell policy

Question 54

How does emotion play a role in prejudice

Answer 54

prejudice can be coming from a place of fear or frustration, which are emotions. The effect can be:

1. the tendency to direct that hostility at someone leading to forming scapegoats
2. or the activation of self-inhibition

Question 55

scapegoat

Answer 55

a person at whom displaced aggression is directed

e.g. blaming the impoverished for an economic collapse or blaming the Jews for economic struggles preceding WW2

Question 56

How does cognition play a role in prejudice?

Answer 56

cognition, in the form of information processing, conributes to bias in that we create conceptual categories (often formed in part by socialization and/or upbrining) in order to categorize and organize data based on similarities or differences; its an automatic shortcut that our brains like to take. When the conceptualization is based on similarity this can lead to stereotypes as well as the thinking that one member of a group is representative of that group.

Question 57

ethnocentrism

Answer 57

when you judge people from another culture by the standards of one’s own culture

Question 58

cultural relativism

Answer 58

judging another culture by its own standards

this can be difficult to do especially when that culture clashes with one’s own

Question 59

group

Answer 59

a group is a collection of any number of individuals as few as 2 (called a dyad) who regularly interact and identify with eachother, share similar norms, values and expectations

Question 60

primary vs secondary group

Answer 60

Primary: a group with whom an individualengages with in person and long-term. Serves expressive functions, meaning that it meets emotional needs. e.g. family

Secondary: a group wtih whom an individual engages with for more specific reasons and for shorter periods of time. They serve instrumental functinos, meaning, they meet pragmatic needs. e.g. study group

Question 61

in group

Answer 61

a group that an individual belongs to and believes to be an integral part of who they are.

subgroup of both primary and secondary groups

Question 62

outgroup

Answer 62

group to which you don’t belong

Question 63

reference group

Answer 63

a group that serves as a standard measure to which you compare yourself.

e.g. your peers who are also studying for the MCAT… whether or not you are in an ingroup with them or not.

Question 64

What is it called when people share the same space with others but are not part of a group with them

Answer 64

aggregate

(there can still be groups within an aggregate, for example if your group is studying in a coffeeshop, the people in the coffee shop form an aggregate but you are still a group)

Question 65

bureaucracy

Answer 65

an administrative body with members at different levels with different tasks, and the processes by which this body accomplishes its tasks.

Question 66

McDonaldization

Answer 66

the process by which the principles of the fast-food restaurant such as rationalizing a task into its component parts, are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society.

The net effect is:

• efficiency
• calculability (assessing performance through output quantity or speed)
• predictability
• control (automation where possible)

Question 67

iron rule/law of oligarchy

Answer 67

describes the paradoxical feature of bureaucracies that as they become more complex, they will inevitably become less revolutionary and less capable of adapting. This is because they are predicated on policies/procedures which are the antithesis of adaptation.

Question 68

Does the mere presence of others have an effect on people’s performance?

Answer 68

Yes.

People tend to perform simple, well-learned tasks better when other people are present.

People tend to perform complex or novel tasks more poorly when others are present

Question 69

What is the Social Facilitation effect?

Answer 69

Descibres how people tend to perform differently because of the mere presence of others.

Simple, well-learned tasks better when other people are present.

People tend to perform complex or novel tasks more poorly when others are present

Question 70

deindividuation

Answer 70

when people lose their individual identity in exchange for identifying with a group. Is the result of disconnect between behavior and attitudes, usually stemming from lack of self-awareness

The conditions for deindividuation to occur:

1. group size “lost in the crowd” feel
2. physical anonymity
3. arousing activities (ie escalating from a small start)

Question 71

T/F: factors that reduce self-awareness increase a sense of deindividuation

Answer 71

TRUE

Question 72

bystander effect

Answer 72

describes how a person is less likely to provide help/intervene in a situation whn there are bystanders

Question 73

forced assimilation

Answer 73

the process in which an individual or group is forced to forsake aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture but in such a way that it does not lead to increased inclusion, but rather exclusion

This usually produces greater social integration and inclusion, BUT when it is forced assimilation, you get the opposite effect, more exclusion

Question 74

social loafing

Answer 74

describes how a person is less likely to work hard on a project, the more people there are working on that project. (less effort when evaluated as a gorup)

Question 75

group polarization

Answer 75

the tendency for the viewpoints in a group to get stronger upon interacting with others in that group

*does not indivate that the group gets more divided necessarily

group polarization occurs as a result of:

1. informational influence: when the most common ideas to emerge are the ones that favor the dominant viewpoint which gives everyone in the group to researse a viewpoint that is in accord with what was just said
2. normative influence: when you want to be socially desireable so you expound on a view so that you can identify with a group more closely and be admireed.

Question 76

informational influence aka informational social influence

Answer 76

when the most common ideas to emerge are the ones that favor the dominant viewpoint which gives everyone in the group to researse a viewpoint that is in accord with what was just said

compliance when we think others “know something I don’t know”

Question 77

normative influence aka normative social influence

Answer 77

when you want to be socially desireable so you expound on a view so that you can identify with a group more closely and be admireed.

Question 78

groupthink

Answer 78

the tendency for people to not bring up dissenting opinions in an effort to not rock the boat

Question 79

T/F: Deviance is always bad

Answer 79

False, some deviance is good

e.g. rosa parks

Question 80

what are the 3 ways behavior may be motivated by social influences

Answer 80

1. compliance: motivated by punishment or reward
2. identification: motivated by the desire to be like another person or group
3. internalization: motivated by values and beliefs that have been integrated into a person’s value system

Question 81

status

Answer 81

a term that refers to any socially defined position in a society, whether ascribed or achieved

e.g. wife, student, doctor, disabled, resident of california, black

Question 82

Master Status

Answer 82

the status that dominates over the other statuses for a given individual and determines that person’s position in society

e.g. being a doctor or professional football player

Question 83

what are the 3 components to attitudes?

Answer 83

ABCs

affect (feelings)

behavioral inclinations

cognition (beliefs)

Question 84

role conflict vs role strain

Answer 84

role conflict: conflict in society’s expectations for multiple statuses held by the same person

e.g. male nurse

role strain: the conflicting expectations of a single status

e.g. be a good student but don’t be a know it all

Question 85

social network

Answer 85

a web of social relationships

can be:

1. those in which a person is directly linked to others
2. those in which people are indirectly connected through others.

Social network theory states that there is great power in weak tie, e.g. someone is more likely to get a job from an acquaintance than a close friend

Question 86

What are the types of organizations

^{aka formal organizations}

Answer 86

1. Utilitarian: people get paid to be a part, e,g a business
2. Normative: people join and stay because of morally relevant goals e.g AA group
3. Coercive organizations: members do not have a choice in joining or staying e.g. prison

Question 87

self-handicapping

Answer 87

a strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self blame when they do poorly.

e.g. not studying for a test so that you and others will blame your poor grade on external circumstances rather than raw intelligence (which is a characteristics that is pesumably more important to the individual).

Question 88

dramaturgical perspective

Answer 88

the theory (stemming from symbolic interactionism) that we imagine ourselves playing certain roles when iteracting with others. Our identities are not fixed, but are dependent on our interactions with others

interaction is either:

1. front stage: we play a role and use impression management to craft the way we come across to other people. e.g. how you dress and act at work.

2. back stage: we can led down our guard and be ourselves. e.g. how you act and dress at home

Question 89

T/F: aggression is more likely to occur in situations in which prior experience has led to aggression

Answer 89

true

Question 90

T/F frustrating stimuli can lead to aggression

Answer 90

True, known as the frustratoin/aggression principle

Question 91

social support

Answer 91

family support.

Has major effect on health outcomes

Question 92

game theory

Answer 92

an evolutionary theory used to predict large complex systems such as overall behavior of a population.

e.g. using game theory to predict how a crowd might behave in an enclosed space in a disaster

Question 93

what is the difference, according to George Mead, between the “I” and the “me”

Answer 93

Me= social self, awareness of what society thinks, the observed. The “me” has the power to influence how the “I” acts in social situations.

I= the observer, contemplates what the me brings to it using value system

Question 94

inclusive fitness

Answer 94

defined by the number of offspring an organism has and how it supports its offspring

Question 95

Infants have reflexes, of which there are 7. They are:

Answer 95

1. Moro (startle) - lasting 6 months
2. Rooting (in response to cheek touch baby will open mouth for nipple)
3. sucking - in response to anything touching roof of mouth, baby will begin to suck
4. Babinski reflex: in response to the sole of foot being touched, baby will move toes up and fanned
5. Tonic Neck - inresponse to its head being turned, baby will reach same side arm out and opposite side arm bends up at elbow
6. Palmar grasp - in response to stroking the baby’s palm, baby’s hand will grasp
7. Walking/stepping- in response to the soles of a baby’s feet touching a flat surfacem they will attempt to walk by placing one foot in front of the other.

Question 96

What are the 5 stages of motor development?

Answer 96

0-1 years: Reflexive

0-2: Rudimentary

2-7: fundamental

7-14: specialized movement

14+: Application of Movement

Question 97

reflexive movements in babies are those which

Answer 97

serve to prime the neuromuscular system for more sophisticated movement to come

Question 98

Rudimentary Movements (child development)

Answer 98

are the first voluntary movements such as rolling, sitting, crawling, standing, walking

Question 99

The fundamental movement stage of childhood development

Answer 99

one in which the child is learning to manipulate his or her body through actions such as running, jumping, throwing. Highly influenced by environment, more so than others

Question 100

specialized movement stage

Answer 100

child learns to combine the fundamental movements and starts to apply specific tasks.

Question 101

application of movement stage

Answer 101

begins in adolescence and continues through adulthood: movements are refined and applied to normal daily activities

Question 102

infantile amnesia

Answer 102

period from birth to 3.5 years in which we do not have conscious memories although we still use memoring to learn

Question 103

Stranger anxiety occurs at ? months, whereas separation anxiety occurs at ? months

Answer 103

7-12 months

12

Question 104

stranger anxiety in babies occurs because

Answer 104

babies have developed schemas for familiar faces and when a new face doesn’t fit that schema, they get upset.

Question 105

Which of the following is true regarding Stanley Milgram’s obedience experiments and Solomon Asch’s conformity experiments?

Answer 105

B. Stanley Milgram’s famous obedience experiment tested the effects of an authority figure on an individual’s behavior with a cleverly devised study that duped the subject into believing that he was administering real electric shocks to another individual while an authority figure urged him to continue on, even when he expressed concern. Solomon Asch’s famous conformity experiment tested the effects of peer pressure on behavior with a study where subjects were asked to select a specific line out of a set in the presence of others who all picked the wrong answer. Item I is true: Both experiments used confederates to create deception in their studies (choice C can be eliminated). Item II is true: Both experiments were testing how the presence of others has an impact on individual behavior (choice A can be eliminated). Item III is false: While Milgram was interested in examining the impact of obedience to authority on behavior, Asch was interested in examining the influence of conformity on behavior (choice D can be eliminated; choice B is correct).

Question 106

homophily

Answer 106

Homophily is the tendency of individuals to associate and bond with others similar to themselves.

Question 107

heterophily

Answer 107

Heterophily (the opposite of homophily) is the tendency of individuals to collect in diverse groups.

Question 108

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Answer 108

Question 109

serial position effect

Answer 109

Short-term memory is more likely to retain pieces of information from the beginning and end of a list. This phenomenon is called the serial position effect.

don’t confuse with recency and primacy effect

Question 110

anterograde memory

Answer 110

memory of events after an event like a stroke ie new memories

*anterograde amnesia is inability to form new memories

Question 111

retrograde memory

Answer 111

refers to memories before an event

Question 112

ambient stressor

Answer 112

Ambient stressors are those chronic environmental stressors that cannot be changed (or are perceived as unchangeable) by the efforts of the individual subject to them. Things like the economy and climate change would be examples of ambient stressors.

Question 113

acute stressor

Answer 113

An acute stressor is one that is present over a short period of time. This does not apply to a persistent issue like the state of the economy.

Question 114

mesolimbic pathway

Answer 114

aka reward pathway, is a pathway in the brain connecting the midbrain to the forebrain. It releases dopamine in response to rewarding stimuli, thus reinforcing behaviors that are perceived as pleasurable.

Question 115

aversive conditioning

Answer 115

Aversive conditioning is a behavioral conditioning technique in which noxious stimuli are associated with undesirable or unwanted behaviors. If this technique is successful, the individual reduces the frequency of the unwanted behavior.

Question 116

operant conditioning

Answer 116

In operant conditioning, extinction refers to the decline of an operant response when it is no longer reinforced. For example, a child who climbs onto a table, a response which has been reinforced by attention, is subsequently ignored until the attention-seeking behavior no longer occurs.

Question 117

psychoanalytic theory posits that:

Answer 117

personality is shaped by a person’s unconscious thoughts, feelings and memories in such a way that a person’s consious awareness plays a limited role compared to their unconscious

Question 118

Sigmund Freud was the founder of which theory

Answer 118

psychoanalytic theory

Question 119

according to Freud’s iteration of psychoanalytic theory, the 2 instinctual drives that motivate human behavior are:

Answer 119

libido (life force) - responsible for behaviors focused on survial, growth, creativity, pain avoidance and pleasure

death instinct - responsible for behaviors fueld by an unconscious wish to die or hurt others

Question 120

Freud: psychic energy is distributed among 3 personality components that function in concert. They are:

Answer 120

1. “Id”: source of energy and instincts, largely unconscious
2. “Ego”: ruled by logical thinking and exerts control ovr the id and consciousness. The ego tries to find realistic ways to satisfy the Id’s desires
3. Superego: inhibits the id and influenzes the ego to follow morals and idealistic goals rather than just realistic. Motivated by feelings of pride (psychological rewards) and guilt (psychological punishments)

Question 121

according to Frued, anxiety is ?

Answer 121

a feeling that occurs when a person begins to become aware of repressed feelings memories or desires. To protect against this, we develop ego defense mechanisms

Question 122

The ego defense mechanism known as reaction formation is

Answer 122

expressing the opposite of what one really feels when it would feel too dangerous to express the real feeling

e.g. acting mean towards someone you are sexually attracted to

Question 123

The ego defense mechanism known as displacement is

Answer 123

redirecting aggressive or sexual impulses from a forbidden action or object onto a less dangerous one

e.g. going home and kicking your dog instead of punching your coworker

Question 124

The ego defense mechanism known as rationalization is

Answer 124

explaining and intellectually justifying one’s impulsive behavior

Question 125

The ego defense mechanism known as regression is

Answer 125

reverting to an earlier less sophisticated behavior in response to a trauma

Question 126

The ego defense mechanism known as sublimation is

Answer 126

channeling aggressive or sexual energy into positive, constructive activities such as producing art

Question 127

whereas Freud had a theory of developmental stages known as ___1___, Erikson had a theory of developmental stages known as _____2___

Answer 127

1. psychosexual
2. psychosocial

Question 128

Freud’s psychosexual stages have the mnemonic “Ooh, Aah, Please, Lick, _my Genitals”

What are they?

Answer 128

1. Oral: 0-1 yr
2. Anal: 1-3 yrs
3. Phallic: 3-6 yrs
4. Latency: 6-12 yrs
5. Genital: 12+

Question 129

what happen’s during Freud’s latency stage?

Answer 129

sexual interests subside and the individual pursues school, friends and sports

Question 130

Erikson’s psycosocial stages are described as 2 opposed inclinations e.g. A vs B. what are they?

Answer 130

1. Infancy 0-1: Trust vs mistrust
2. Early childhood 1-3: Autonomy vs doubt and shame
3. Preschool age 3-6: Initiative vs guilt
4. School age 6-12: industry vs inferiority
5. Adolescence: 12-18: Identity vs role confusion
6. Young adulthood 18-35: Intimacy vs isolation
7. Middle age 35-60: generativity vs stagnation
8. Later life 60+: integrity vs despair

Question 131

in contrast to the psychoanalytic theory, the humanistic theory focuses on

Answer 131

healthy personality development and relies on the idea that people are essenially good and are all essentially motivated by the actualizing tendency: the drive to maintain and enhance the organism

Question 132

As developed by Carl Rogers, humanistic theory posits that:

Answer 132

People choose actions that are consistent with their self-concepts and they feel incongruence if they experiences something that contradicts their self-concepts. In the developmental stages, a child will internalize (introject) caregivers’ values and take them on as their own self concept, despite the presence of the child’s unconscious true values, which still remain.

The discrepancy between conscious introjected values and unconscious true values is the root of psychopathology.

Question 133

the behavioristic perspective posits that

Answer 133

personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on deterministic environmental conditioning: operant or classical.

*children begin as blank slates

Question 134

what’s the difference between operant and classical conditioning?

Answer 134

operant: an operant is a person’s action or behavior that operates on the environment and produces consequencecs that are either positive or negative reinforcements or punishments.

classical: (pavlovian): forming an association between two stimuli resulting in a learned response that was not present before e.g. developing a phobia

Question 135

What are the differences between positive vs negative reinforcement and positive vs negative punishment

Answer 135

Question 136

what are the 3 major therapy types?

Answer 136

Question 137

Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs

Answer 137

Question 138

trait theorists differentiate between ___ and ___ traits

Answer 138

source and surface

source: factors underlying human personality and behavior e/g/ exroversion and introversion _{(factor analysis has reduced the number of souce traits to 5 global factors)}

surface: behavioral, adjectives for describing human behavior e,g, talkative vs quiet _{(factor analysis has reduced the number of possible surface traits to 16, called primary factors)}

^ each source/global factor is paired with 4-5 surface/primary traits

Question 139

How do the global/primary trait model (by Cattell) and OCEAN model compare?

Answer 139

Question 140

what biological region could be responsible for differences in extroversion between people

Answer 140

reticular formation

because it mediates arousal and consciousness

Question 141

what biological region could be responsible for differences in neuroticism between people

Answer 141

limbic system because it mediates emotion and memory

Question 142

low dopamine activity corresponds with higher

1. impulsivity
2. risk avoidance
3. approval seeking

Answer 142

1. impulsivity

Question 143

Low norepinephrine activity corresponds to higher

1. impulsivity
2. risk avoidance
3. approval seeking

Answer 143

3. approval seeking

Question 144

low serotonin activity correlates with higher

1. impulsivity
2. risk avoidance
3. approval seeking

Answer 144

2. risk avoidance

Question 145

T/F: research suggests that people act with perfect consistency according to their personalities

Answer 145

False

personalities are consistent but behavior is not. Most often people moderate their behavior based on social cues

The average behavior of an individual is the best way to actually determine their personality

Question 146

T/F: Instict is learned

Answer 146

false. Instincts are behaviors that are unlearned and present in fixed patterns throughout a species (they represent the contribution of genes, hich predispose a certain species to particular behaviors)

Question 147

what are the 4 factors that influence motivation?

Answer 147

1. instincts: unlearned pattern of behavior based on your species
2. drives & negative feedback systems: drive = urge arising from a physiological discomfort
3. arousal: motivation to be reach optimal level of arousal (intellectual and otherwise)
4. needs: includes biologicacl needs but also need for higher order things like financial safety, belonging, or achievement

Question 148

Drive reduction theory

Answer 148

that we are motivated to reduce certain drives through behaviors

the drive is seen as a negative aroused state that moves an organism to reduce that state

e.g. hunger is a negative aroused state that moves us to resolve that drive by eating.

Question 149

incentive theory

Answer 149

external stimuli such as objects or events that are positive or negative, motivating us to act or not act

e.g. you get a job offer and the pay is better but the work hours are worse. These would pose positive and negative incentives, respectively

Question 150

what is the value of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

Answer 150

1. it suggests accurately that not all needs are equal to a person
2. it accounts for higher order needs such as self-actualization, which other theories don’t

Question 151

what structure is responsible for regulating body temp

Answer 151

hypothalamus

Question 152

example of how our behavior and negative feedback work in tandem to maintain homeostasis

Answer 152

heat → we stretch out to maximize surface area, shed layers of clothing and seek shade → these changes physiologically reduce body temp

Question 153

higher/lower levels or both higher and lower levels on maslows hierarchy are imacted by sociocultural differences

Answer 153

both higher and lower levels

Question 154

prevelence of psychological disorders in the US

Answer 154

1 in 4

Question 155

psychological disorder def

Answer 155

a set of behavioral or psychological symptoms that is not in keeping with social norms and that is severe enough to cause significant personal distress or impariment in social occupational or personal functioning.

diagnosis is based on:

• symptom quantity and severity
• impact on functioning

Question 156

Biopsychosocial approach

Answer 156

an approach that posits that there are 3 overlapping contributions to mental health although not every mental health problem is a result of an overlap of all 3 or even 2 at a time. These factors are:

1. biological
2. psychological
3. sociocultural

Question 158

psychoanalytic theory of personality and who were the theorists

Answer 158

that personality is shaped by a person’s unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories, derived from past experiences

Major thinkers in this theory:

1. Freud
   
   • 5 psychosexual stages
2. Erik Erikson
   
   • 8 psychosocial stages

Question 159

what 2 instinctual drives motivate human behavior according to psychoanalytic theory?

Answer 159

death instinct: the unconscious wish to die or hurt others drives aggressive behaviors

libido instinct: life instince drives behaviors focused on survival, growth, creativity, pain avoidance and pleasure

Question 160

according to psychoanalysts, personality has what 3 components?

Answer 160

ego: controls consciousness and the id. The realistic one

superego: inhibits the id and influences the ego to follow moralistic and idealistic goals rather than just materialistic ones. seeks feelings of pride and self love and avoids feelings of guilt and inferiority

id: nearly all unconscious, the source of instincts and energy. Ruled by the pleasure principle and does not concern itself with morality

Question 161

Panic disorder

Answer 161

ANXIETY DISORDER

a perons has had at least one panic attack and is concerned about having more. attacks can be triggered but are more often unpredictable and spontaneous

Question 162

social anxiety disorder aka social phobia

Answer 162

ANXIETY DISORDER

an unreasonable feer of feeling embarrased while one is seen or watched by others, even while performing routine activities such as eating

Question 163

specific phobia

Answer 163

ANXIETY DISORDER

a persistent strong and unreasonable fear of certain object or situation.

Types: situational, natural, blood-injection-injury, animal

Question 164

in OCD, compulsions are

Answer 164

repeated physical or mental behaviors that are performed in response to an obsession or in accordance with a set of rules done in order to reduce anxiety, often done despite the person’s awarenes that it is unreasonable

Question 165

in OCD, obsessions are

Answer 165

repeated intrusive uncontrollable thoughts or impulses that cause distress or anxiety. Often the person knowns they are irrational but still responds through a compulsion

Question 166

Classical conditioning refers to learning as a result of pairing an unconditioned stimulus with a conditioned stimulus as in Pavlov’s dog

does the unconditioned stimulus have to be positive?

Answer 166

no, in fact, if it is, then that would probably be considered positive reinforcement

Question 167

the classical conditioning theory of spontaneous recovery refers to ?

Answer 167

a phenomenon that occurs when an animal/person will produce the conditioned response in response to the conditioned stimulus even after a period of both extinction and delay as follows:

In extinction, the conditioned stimulus is presented consistently without the unconditioned stimulus, and, eventually, the conditioned stimulus loses its excitatory power.

However, if, after a delay wherein the conditioned stimulus is not presented either, the conditioned stimulus is presented again, it will elicit the conditioned response.

Question 168

What are social schemas?

Answer 168

cognitive structures that guide the information processing of ideas about categories of social events and people. When a social schema is made more accessible through priming, it can be activated and used more quickly in a particular situation.

e.g. In a study, subjects’ social schemas regarding African Americans were made accessible by priming them with stereotypic African American trait words. This is evident by the control group subjects’ significantly faster categorization of African American photos after being primed with stereotypic trait words which is a cognitive phenomenon

Question 169

T/F: individuals afflicted with brain damage or a dementia, such as Alzheimer’s disease, often engage in confabulation in order to fill in the gaps left by lost memories.

Answer 169

true

Question 170

Feature-detection theory is what?

Answer 170

a theory of visual perception that proposes that different neurons fire in response to detecting different features; in other words, some neurons fire only in response to vertical lines or motion or contrast. Feature-detection theory cannot explain how verbal insight problems most likely activate the wrong set of internal representations because these problems are word-based and not image-based.

Question 171

What is the spreading activation model

Answer 171

it posits that the mind maintains networks of words that are associated with each other to varying degrees. When one word is activated, those words with the strongest associations to the activated word are also activated.

e.g. The way verbal insight problems use words that lead to incorrect activations is best explained by the spreading activation model

Question 172

hypervigilance commonly occurs with what type of psychological disorder?

Answer 172

PTSD

Question 173

acute stress disorder is different from PTSD how?

Answer 173

length of duration is less than 1 month

PTSD has to be occuring for a month at least in order to have a diagnosis

Question 174

somatic symptom disorder

Answer 174

a psychological disorder in which someone is distressed due to persistent physical symptoms that are not rooted in any pathophysiology

Question 175

what are the disorders related to somatic symptom disorder?

Answer 175

1. illness anxiety disorder: distress is related more to fear of illness rather than actual physical symptoms (somatic aspect not central)
2. conversion disorder: when an emotional disturbence converts to a physical symptom. _{^{e.g. blindness but with blink reflex intact}}
3. factitious disorder: when someone falsifies evidence of a fabricated injury or illness (e.g. by self inflicted injury or inflicted on another) in order to substantiate the claim/feeling

Question 176

symptoms of Schizophrenia spectrum

Answer 176

delusions,

hallucinations,

disorganized thinking,

disorganized or abnormal motor behavior,

decreased emotional expressiveness,

lack of motivation,

decreased or absent speech

Question 177

T/F: dissociative identity disorder involves amnesia/loss of awareness for one or more of the personality states

Answer 177

true

Question 178

which psychological disorders have bases in biology, ie are nervous system disorders?

Answer 178

Schizophrenia

Depression

Question 179

what group of psychological disorders do the following belong to?

1. delusional disorder
2. brief psychotic disorder
3. schizoaffective disorder

Answer 179

schizophrenia spectrum

Question 180

what are the types of depressive disorders?

Answer 180

major depressive disorder: when one has suffered more than one major depressive episode

persistent depressive disorder (aka dysthymic disorder or dysthymia): when someone experiences milder symptoms most days for at least 2 years without major depressive episode

premenstural dysphoric disorder: when the typical symptoms of major depressive episode are present but intesify before the onset of menses

Question 181

which of the two is both a psychotic disorder and a personality disorder:

schizotypal or schizoid

Answer 181

schizotypal

Question 182

a person who is irrational, withdrawn, cold and/or suspicious could most likely belong to which of the following groupings of personality disorders

1. paranoid, schizoid, scizotypal
2. antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic
3. avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive

Answer 182

1. paranoid, schizoid, scizotypal

Question 183

a person who is tense, anxious, and/or over-controlled could most likely belong to which of the following groupings of personality disorders?

1. paranoid, schizoid, scizotypal
2. antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic
3. avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive

Answer 183

3. avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive

Question 184

a person who is emotional, dramatic, attention-seeking, intense could most likely belong to which of the following groupings of personality disorders?

1. paranoid, schizoid, scizotypal
2. antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic
3. avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive

Answer 184

2. antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic

Question 185

what characterizes obsessive-compulsive disorders?

Answer 185

a pattern of obsessive thoughts coupled with maladaptive behavioral compulsions. disorders in this category are:

1. OCD,
2. body dysmorphic disorder,
3. hoarding disorder

Question 186

what characterizes somatic symptom disorders?

Answer 186

symptoms that cannot be explained by medical condition or drugs. disorders in this category are:

1. somatic symptom disorder (proper)
2. illness anxiety disorder
3. conversion disorder
4. factitious disorder (self imposed or by proxy)

Question 187

what characterizes bipolar related disorders

Answer 187

cyclic mood swings (manic followed by depressive followed by manic etc)

disorders in this category are:

1. Bipolar I: _{^{at least 1 manic or mixed episode}}
2. Bipolar II: ^{_{manic phases less extreme and must have experienced 1+ major depressive episodes}}
3. Cyclothymic disorder

Question 188

what characterizes psychotic disorders?

Answer 188

loss of contact with reality

disorders in this category are:

1. schizophrenia _{^{(>6 months sxs)}}
2. schizophreniform disorder ^{_{(<6 months of sxs)}}
3. schizoaffective disorder
4. delusional disorder
5. brief psychotic disorder: _{^{positive sxs only, <1 mo}}

Question 189

what characterizes dissociative disorders?

Answer 189

disruptions in memory, awareness, identity, or perception.

disorders in this category are:

1. dissociative identity disorder: _{^{2 distinct personalities}}
2. dissociative amnesia
3. depersonalization disorder: _{^{out of body experience}}

Question 190

dissociative amnesia is

Answer 190

episode of forgetting personal information or events usually because of trauma. usually the amnesia is localized to memories from one time period or occasion.

Question 191

T/F: dissociative disorders are also personality disorders

Answer 191

false

Question 192

what characterizes personality disorders?

Answer 192

enduring maladaptive patterns of behavior and cognition that departs from social norms.

disorders in this category are_{^{: (each with the suffix - <em><strong>personality disorder</strong></em>)}}

1. paranoid
2. schizoid
3. schizotypal*
4. antisocial
5. borderline
6. histrionic
7. narcissistic
8. avoidant
9. dependent
10. obsessive compulsive*

*cross-linked to other category in DSM

Question 193

difference between:

paranoid personality disorder

vs

generalized anxiety disorder or panic disorder

Answer 193

paranoid personality disorder: characterized by suspicion rather than fear

generalized anxiety disorder or panic disorder: characterized by excessive fear

Question 194

difference between OCD and OCPD

OCPD = obsessive compulsive personality disorder

Answer 194

even though they are cross linked in DSM,

OCD is characterized by true repetitive behavior and compulsions based on a sense of necessity

OCPD is characterized by obsesssive behavior that is more based on preference/tendency than necessity from the perspective of the individual

Question 195

histrionic personality disorder is

Answer 195

someone who strongly desires to be the center of attention. Other attributes:

1. dramatic displays of emotion
2. belief that one’s relationships are more intimate than they are
3. may resort to seduction and changes in physical appearance to maintain attention

Question 196

borderline personality disorder is characterized by

Answer 196

enduring instability in impulse control and mood

Question 197

avoidant personality disorder vs antisocial personality disorder

Answer 197

avoidant personality disorder: feels inadequate or inferior and generallyl avoids interactions for fear of being unliked

antisocial personality disorder: someone with a history of serious abnormal behaviors such as aggression, deliberate illegal behavior, and/or lack of remorse for actions that hurt others. typically since age 15

Question 198

narcissistic personality disorder vs histrionic personality behavior

Answer 198

narcissistic: doesn’t necessarily want attention but feels overly self-important

histrionic: wants attention but does not necessarily feel overly self-important

Question 199

what hypotheses/evidence support the fact that Schizophrenia has a biological basis?

Answer 199

1. genetic studies done on twins have shown that the other twin has a 50% chance of being schizophrenic if her twin was
2. stress-diathesis theory: genetics can give a predisoposition to schizophrenia but stressors are what elicit the onset of the disease
3. dopamine hypothesis: pathway for dopamine is overactive in people with schizophrenia
4. decrease in size or activity of brain regions

Question 200

what hypotheses/evidence support the fact that depression has a biological basis?

Answer 200

1. diminished functioning of neurotransmitter pathways for:

dopamine

serotonin

norepinephrine

Question 201

anterograde amnesia vs retrograde amnesia

Answer 201

anterograde: inability to form new memories

retrograde: degredation of past memories going from most recent → distant

Question 202

what is the biological basis for Alzheimer’s disease

Answer 202

1. formation of plaques in tissue of the cortex
2. abnormal activity of neurotransmitter acetylcholine in hippocampus

Question 203

which form(s) of memory loss are present in someone with Alzheimer’s disease?

anterograde

retrograde

both

Answer 203

both

Question 204

Parkinson’s disease is caused by

Answer 204

death of cells that generate dopamine in the basal ganglia and substantia nigra

Question 205

what’s the reasoning behind stem cell-based therapy to regenerate neurons in the central nervous system

Answer 205

stem cells have the capacity to differentiate into any of the cell types in the nervous system.

Evidence shows that neural stem cells can migrate and replace dying neurons in the CNS. This is promising for :

Huntingtons

Alzheimers

Parkinsons

MS

Question 206

ABCs of attitude

Answer 206

A: affect (emotion)

B: behavioral tendencies

C: cognition

Question 207

in what situations are attitudes most likely to predicit behavior?

Answer 207

1. when social situations are reduced
2. when general patterns rather than specific behaviors are observed _{^{<strong>principle of aggregation: attitude reflects our average behavioral tendency rather than each individual act</strong>}}
3. when an attitude is specific to the behaviorrather than too generalized to provide predictive capacity
4. when an individual has more time to self-reflect before acting

Question 208

in what ways can behavior affect attitudes rather than the normal other way around

Answer 208

1. role playing: fake it till you make it, can be placed on you involuntarily or chosen.. either way the net effect is the same
2. Public declaration.
3. Justification of effort: you are more likely to feel strongly compelled to do something that you have already invested in (in terms of money, time, or emotion) _{^{*you can also use this tactic on others, called the foot in the door phenomenon}}

Question 209

cognitive dissonance theory

Answer 209

posits that when our attitudes and behavior don’t match, we experience unpleasant feeling of tension and take actions or adjust our attitudes so that attitudes and behaviors align in order to reduce the tension