Psych 1024

Question 1

1. What is a psychologist and what do they do?

Answer 1

One on one therapy
Use evidence based interventions
Wide range of settings psychologists can work in
Psychologist is a protected title

Question 2

2. In what ways is a psychologist different from councilor, social worker, psychotherapist or psychiatrist?

Answer 2

Psychiatrist can prescribe medication
Social worker helps people manage difficulty and is not restricted to mental health → work more systematically → don’t have to register with AHPRA
The other names refer to the type of work the individual is doing rather than the training required

Question 3

3. How are the titles “Psychologist” and “Clinical Psychologist” different?

Answer 3

Clinical works in clinical settings → more serious and requires more years of education and training

Question 4

4. What are some of the benefits of AHPRA registration?

Answer 4

Protects consumers
Ensures a baseline level of knowledge and competence

Question 5

5. What is the difference between a Psychologist and a Psychological Scientist?

Answer 5

Psychological scientist studies/researchers the mechanisms that aid psychological practice → studies the practice more broadly
Psychologist works with people

Question 6

1. What is a scientist and how do they perform their role?

Answer 6

A person who uses the scientific method to collect and interpret information about the world
They observe phenomena in the real world and use it to answer questions
They use the scientific method → a tool used to understand ourselves and the world around us

Question 7

2. Critique the use of “Scientifically Proven” in advertising.

Answer 7

IS A MYTH
The scientific method CANNOT prove things

Question 8

3. How are theories and hypotheses different?

Answer 8

Theories → ideas are disproven and only the accurate ideas survive → theories gain more support when more and more people try to disprove it and fail to do so
Hypothesis → predicted relationship between variables
It’s not science or a good theory if it is not falsifiable → cant give objective, unbiased, and reliable information that support ideas.

Question 9

4. What are the components of the scientific method?

Answer 9

Initial/past observations → hypothesis → test → analyse/conclude → update or discard (can go back to the hypothesis step and start again) → theory

Theory = a detailed explanation of how and why a phenomenon occurs (based on observations) → makes predictions about them

Hypotheses = a specific prediction about what will occur in an experiment

Operationalising = objective, measurable, replicable, valid

Observation
Scientific studies begin with an initial observation.
* A point of interest for further investigation.
* You must be able to find a way to collect observable evidence.
‘Gap in research’
Past observations are important for the scientific method.
* Try to answer questions raised by existing theories.
* Replication is critical. → indicates confidence of results

Hypotheses
* A hypothesis is a very specific statement about the predicted/expected relationship between variables (both variables)
* It is usually phrased in the form: “If ___[I do this]___, then ___[this]___ will happen.”
* A hypothesis usually predicts the effect of a manipulated variable on a measured variable.
* States that a relationship should exist between variables, the expected direction of the relationship between the variables and how this might be measured

Test
The scientific method requires that you can test the hypothesis.
Design an experiment
Use good experimental design
Collect appropriate data
Control as many aspects as possible
Research Methods
Is the experiment reliable?
Are your measures valid?

Analyse and conclude
Consider whether the data supports your hypothesis
Is there sufficient evidence?
Are the results statistically significant?
Are further studies required?
Conclude
Conclusions are the researcher’s interpretation of the evidence
Based on the results of the experiment
Explain the results of the experiment

Update or Discard
The scientific method is dynamic
* Must be able to update your hypothesis when there is a lack of data to support it
* Must be able to discard your hypothesis when the evidence refutes it.
This requires many aspects of critical thinking
* Open to the possibility you are incorrect
* Evaluation of the evidence
* Ability to change your opinion with new evidence

Theories are NOT hypothesis → theory is based on years of work

Theory
* A theory is an organised system of assumptions and principles that attempts to explain certain phenomena and how they are related.
* Many hypothesis are tested and data collected before a theory is formed
* Provide a framework regarding the facts
* Theories can also lead to further questions and hypotheses
Science is a circular process and is always continuing → once a theory is proven more gaps are identified and more studies extend to test this

Question 10

5. What are independent and dependent variables?

Answer 10

Independent variable is the manipulated variable (grouping variable) → is randomly assigned to control for systematic differences → normally has two levels (such as drug and placebo)
Quasi independent variable → variables that the experimenter cannot be randomly allocated → Commonly used as grouping variables
Natural Variables
Country of birth
Biological Sex
Age
Attribute/person variables
Individual difference variables that fall on a spectrum
Level of risk taking
Anxiety

Dependent variables
* The dependent variable is the variable used to assess or measure the effects of the independent variable
* Dependent on the independent variable
* Measures a behaviour or response for each treatment condition of the experiment
* The dependent variable is NOT manipulated it is only ever measured

Question 11

1. What are “moods” and “affect”? Are they emotions?

Answer 11

Moods and affect do not equal emotions
Emotions are shorter in duration than moods
Emotions tend to have an ‘aboutness’ → occur in response to a stimulus
Emotions are more specific than moods
Moods = lasts from days to months without any specific stimulus that caused it. They are also more defuse than emotions, meaning they are vague, while emotions are specific
Affect = umbrella term used to group clusters of experiences → including mood, emotions, and feelings → including the valence of these things (positive/negative)

Question 12

2. What is meant by the term “aboutness”?

Answer 12

We don’t just feel emotions for no reason, we feel anger ABOUT something
Occur in response to a stimulus
Cognitions = what we think → we may feel wronged or a sense of justice that occurs in response to a stimulus and therefore breeds emotion

Question 13

3. What are the “compnents of emotion” that we discussed in this lecture?

Answer 13

stimulus
Cognition
Physiological symptoms → changes in the body
Behaviours → what type of behaviours does stimulus + cognition + physiological changes
Conscious experiences → what we are consciously aware of

Question 14

4. In relation to emotions and moods, what is meant by specific vs diffuse?

Answer 14

Emotions are directed towards someone or something specific (i.e., they are intentional). Moods are not directed at anything in particular but at the world as a whole, reflecting more global and diffuse states or conditions.

Question 15

5. List the “primary” emotions

Answer 15

Primary emotions are referred to as the 6 universal emotions
Happiness
Sadness
Surprise
Anger
Fear
disgust

Question 16

1. How might the components of anger be similar or different to the components of fear?

Answer 16

Anger
An event that we thought was unfair or unjust
Thoughts that something was wronged
Physiological symptoms such as getting hot and sweaty
Behaviours like standing in a particular way or approaching the issue

Event
The event that triggers anger can be very different from the event that triggers fear
However someone can be angry and fearful at the same time from the same event
Physiology
Can feel the same physical symptoms
Thoughts
Thoughts significantly distinguish between emotions
Content of thoughts
In tense situations thoughts cant be reliable as they can get muddled up
Behaviours
These can give us helpful clues
Approach v avoidance
Cant just use behvaiour as people mask their emotions through their behaviours

Must consider all components together

Question 17

2. How do our bodies decipher and decide which emotion we are feeling?

Answer 17

idk pookie

Question 18

3. What is meant by a discrete approach to classifying emotion?

Answer 18

Identify discrete emotions that are distinct and separate from one another
In each of these categories experiences are similar
Similar in the ways we observe and measure (behaiours and physiological change)
Paul ekman → discrete approach → did an experiment where he asked people from different cultures which emotion was displayed on a persons face and they all got it correct
Argued that these are universal emotions
These emotions ‘converge on many of the same basic emotions despite having emerged from very different research traditions’
Discrete approach does have scientific merit
Limitation → not all species have this (earth worms)
Discrete Emotion refers to the concept of fundamental emotions, such as happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, disgust, and fear, that are universally shared among cultures and quantified using ordinal values for emotional expression levels.

Identify discrete emotions that are distinct and separate from one another

Question 19

4. Why do some supporters of dimensional accounts feel that they are more accurate than discrete accounts

Answer 19

Valence → positive to negative
Arousal → high to low
Motivation → approach and avoidance

PARSIMONY IS CRUCIAL

Question 20

5. How can both the discrete and dimensional accounts help us to understand emotions?

Answer 20

Discrete and dimensional are usually pitted against each other

Researchers should look at them together

Discrete emotions can explain and predict our emotional experiences
Dimensional accounts are better with cognitive scope → the hierarchical level at which an organism is analysing stimuli

Motivational intensity drives the effect of emotions → whether we approach (narrow scope) or avoid situations (broader scope)

Question 21

1. What do the functional or evolutionary theories see as the main purpose of emotions?

Answer 21

Functional & Evolutionary theory = argue that purpose of emotions is to aid in problems or make use of opportunities in the environment
When we face problematic or advantageous stimuli a cascade of reactions happen to maximise our survival
‘Reacting in an adaptive way’
Emotional cognitions aid with this → such as facing a threat
Purpose of emotions and emotional cognitions is to redirect our attention towards threatening stimuli so we can react appropriately and survive

Question 22

2. In the motivational theories, what is being motivated by the emotion and why?

Answer 22

Motivational intensity plays an important role in thriving evoluntionarily
Approach and avoid tendencies
The intensity of the motivation affects our motivational scope
After being shown chocolate images (high in approach motivation), participants were more likely to narrow their cognitive scope and look at smaller letters
Those with low approach motivation broaden their scope and cannot see little details (look at the bigger pictures’
This carries over into avoidance motivations
Similar to chocolate version with positive approach motivations, the results carry over into negative approach motivation in avoidance. The level of motivational tendency affected whether people saw big or little letters
Sadness → lower motivation
Disgust → higher motivation

High motivational tendency = narrowed scope
Low motivational tendency = broadened scope

This makes us step back and think about our level of scope when experiencing different types of emotions
Narrowed scope helps us attain goals

Question 23

3. Briefly outline cogntitive appraisal theories.

Answer 23

Emphasises the role cognition plays in emotions
View emotions and cognitions as distinct but related
Cognitive appraisals are our evaluation of something
Cognitive appraisals of something causes emotions
And our emotions causes cognitive appraisals
Appraisals help us evaluate and consider different parts of the stimulus

Question 24

4. How does a constructivist approach view emotions?

Answer 24

View emotions as a complex and dynamic state that the brain constructs
Argue that emotion isnt something separate from cognition → our cognition, physiology and behaviours are all apart of emotion

example:
Exteroceptive input from senses → scary noise
The brain then takes notice of proprioceptive information → where you are currently in space (sitting in bed)
The brain then takes note of interoceptive information → inside the body (heart rate)
The brain takes note of all of this and what caused it → constructs emotions based on this analysis (usually based on past events and their consequences, (danger?))

It’s like the scientific method → It keeps updating

Sometimes we get the prediction wrong → this is called prediction error → integral part of learning → we then update these

Question 25

1. Why do scientists need to define concepts like fear and anxiety?

Answer 25

They are similar
Definitions are important for science so everyone has the same understanding for concepts
Clear definitions allow for everyone to be on the same page
Some researchers argue that fear and anxiety are similar emotions → as they have similar concepts such as appraising a stimuli as threatening
Some researchers argue that they are different → the stimuli is different → plus our thoughts, behaviours, and physiological responses are different
The stimulus is perceived as a threat, however for each emotion the stimulus is different
Fear = stimulus is specific and has an immediate threat → can be avoided/escaped from
Anxiety = stimulus is the anticipation of a future threat → cannot pinpoint the source of fear → non specific (ambiguity) → cannot be easily avoided

The focus of the stimulus differs”
Fear
Severity of the threat
Severity of outcome
Anxiety
Possibility of threat

Question 26

3. Describe how the stimuli for fear and anxiety differ.

Answer 26

Fear = stimulus is specific and has an immediate threat → can be avoided/escaped from
Anxiety = stimulus is the anticipation of a future threat → cannot pinpoint the source of fear → non specific (ambiguity) → cannot be easily avoided

Question 27

4.Describe the cognitions for fear and anxiety differ.

Answer 27

The focus of the stimulus differs”
Fear
Severity of the threat
Severity of outcome
Anxiety
Possibility of threat

Question 28

5. How can we learn to fear a previously neutral stimulus?

Answer 28

Learning about stimuli
Classical conditioning
Ivan pavlov → dogs and bells
Same learning processes that underpin classical conditioning is the same as learning about fear and anxiety.
Some stimuli elicit an innate response from us → UCR and UCS → shock and feel pain → not learned

A previously neutral stimulus elicits a fear response as it has been associated with pain/fear/threat
This becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response of fear
This showcases how negative experiences can condition us to associate things with threat
Not all stimuli is the same → seems to be more associated with natural fears of animals, storms, heights, and open and closed spaces (PREPAREDNESS THEORY)

Classical conditioning does not explain all fears as people can have negative experiences and not fear the stimuli + we dont always need to have a bad experience with a stimulus to be fearful

Verbal instruction
No other species has this
Language is crucial as it allows us to communicate to one another
Others can communicate to us threats (this can be done verbally or through signs)

modelling
We can be threatened by stimuli if we see others scared or threatened by them
Demonstrated in study with monkeys → with fear of snakes → wasnt scared by flowers due to preparedness theory

Classical conditioning, verbal instruction, and modelling can work together to create fears/threats
It can also be reversed through these things

Question 29

1. What effect does the SAM response have on our bodies?

Answer 29

The SAM response is the sympathetic adreno-medullar system

Messages are sent to the sympathetic nervous system to activate a response
SAM is our vigilance and alert response, while it also releases adrenaline and noradrenaline
SAM controls all the physiological functions in the body such as inhibiting non essential functions (like digestion through restricting blood flow) in times of threat
Responsible for changes in heart rate, blah blah blah
Also influences our emotions → feeling butterflies in your stomach? Its the digestive system
VERY FAST
Delivering neural messages along optic fibers

The autonomic system is responsible for our responses to threatening stimuli. It branches off into two systems. The first is the sympathetic nervous system that is responsible for our fight or flight responses → manages survival functions; and the parasympathetic nervous system → our rest and digest system that regulates our long term survival responses
Parasympathetic nervous system opposes the sympathetic nervous system → sympathetic (accelerator) and parasympathetic (break)

Question 30

2. Briefly outline the action of the HPA axis.

Answer 30

HPA axis is the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

Slow
Doesnt rely on rapidly firing nerves
Releases hormones into the bloodstream
Releases stress hormones like cortisol → breaks down fat into sugar → longer lasting energy to support muscles

Question 31

3. What is cortisol and why do what is its function?

Answer 31

Releases stress hormones like cortisol → breaks down fat into sugar → longer lasting energy to support muscles

Question 32

4.How does the proximity of a threat affect our emotions and physiology?

Answer 32

Determines which parts of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system is activate

If theres opportunity to escape the body goes into flight
But if there is no opportunity to escape the body goes into fight or freeze → tonic immobility

This affects what we think (cognitions), our physiological responses, and our behaviours

Question 33

5. Briefly describe each phase of Hamm’s Dimensional Model of Defensive Behaviours.

Answer 33

Anxiety and fear exist on a continuum → relies on the immanence and proximity of the threat
Pre encounter phase of defense

Defensive mode
Pre encounter phase of defense
Entered environment where there might be a threat
Increase in general arousal
Exhibit hypervigilance → on the lookout for threat
Increased processing in the sensory areas of the brain

Activating event
Environment/context in which threat might occur

Defensive behaviours
Threat non specific hypervigilance
Inhibition of appetitive behaviour

Post encounter defense
Threat cue has been detected
Increased selective attention
Motor freezing
Increase in fear potentiated startle → over exaggerate when scared because your fixated on something
Reduction in pain production
Increased autonomic arousal
Heart rate decreases → fear bradychardia
Both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems work at once

Circa-strike defense
Threat is imminent
Active defensive behaviour → fight or flight
panic/fright or tonic immobility
Acute stress response
All attentional resources is focused on the threat and everything else is blocked out
Brain functions shift → effects memory formation

Question 34

1. What happens in our facial expression when we feel fear?

Answer 34

Eyebrows raised and pulled together
Raised upper eyelids
Tensed lower eyelids
Jaw dropped open and lips stretched horizontally backwards

Question 35

2. Describe the facial expression associated with anxiety

Answer 35

Elicits a different facial expression to fear
Vigilance and scanning the environment for threat

Question 36

3. How do fear and anxiety relate to approach and avoidance behaviours?

Answer 36

Motivation dimension: avoid and approach

Fear = avoidance motivation → escape behaviours
Anxiety = approach motivation → hypervigilance looking out for a threat

Avoidance behaviours happen when a threat is COMING
Passive avoidance → not doing the behaviour that leads to the bad outcome
Active avoidance → performing a different behaviour that prevents the bad outcome
Escape behaviour → running away
Fight response can be an escape behaviour as well → this tries to put distance between the individual and stimulus

Escape and avoidance behaviours help us to survive

Approach and avoidance behaviours helps us to learn about the outcomes and consequences of different contexts → this is instrumental conditioning

Question 37

4.How does the proximity of a threat affect our emotions and physiology?

Answer 37

• the proximity of threat determines whether we go into flight or fight
• if the threat is far enough away and there is an escape, we go into flight
• if the threat is too close and there is no escape, we go into fight

Question 38

5. Briefly describe how behaviours associated with fear and anxiety can be negatively reinforced.

Answer 38

Negative reinforcement
Encounters threatening situation
Performs avoidance or escape behaviour (or safety behaviour)
Person recognises that threat is no longer present

They learn the association between safety behaviours and the removal of threatening stimuli
Makes them feel better in the short term
Everytime they do the safety behaviour and the threatening stimuli is removed, the bond between these (the association) is strengthened

Negative reinforcement is an adaptive response
But it can be maladaptive if it causes distress or is overused

Question 39

1. What is the purpose of emotions like fear and anxiety?

Answer 39

Is to keep us safe

Question 40

2. What is meant by state versus trait emotions?

Answer 40

State emotions are short lived and happen in relation to an event
Trait emotions are long lived (pattern of emotions) → start to become a trait of yours (by being in control all the time)

Question 41

3. What criteria need to be met before DSM-5 considers the symptoms a disorder?

Answer 41

Persistent (around 6 months)
Excessive / unreasonable
Cause significant distress and impair functioning

Question 42

4. What is meant by the term “risk factor”?

Answer 42

Add up and interact to increase someone’s likelihood at developing a disorder
These can be grouped by the biosocial model

Question 43

5. What are some risk factors for anxiety disorders?

Answer 43

Biological factors (if someone in your family has anxiety it increases your chance)
Psychological factors (like neuroticism and worry) (associative learning)
social/environmental factors (parents)

Question 44

1. How is the stimulus similar across different anxiety disorders?

Answer 44

Real or imagined threat
Specific nature of the threat differs across anxiety disorders
Worry is common across

Question 45

2. What type of cognitions are frequently seen in anxiety disorders?

Answer 45

Repetitive negative thinking plays a crucial role in the development and maintenance of mood and anxiety disorders
This is called worry

Question 46

3. What types of things do we think when we are worrying?

Answer 46

Overestimate bad things happening
Underestimate our coping abilities

Question 47

4. What physiological symptoms commonly occur in anxiety disorders?

Answer 47

Panic attacks → sudden surge of intense fear peak at 10 minutes
Fight and flight response
Heart beating faster and harder (heart palpitations)
Upset tummy
Numbness
Tingling
Changes in temperature
Sweating → cools us down → also makes us harder to be held down)
Shaking
Tightness and aching in the chest
Breathing changes (hyperventilation)
Pupil dilation

Question 48

5. What behaviours are often seen in anxiety disorders?

Answer 48

Avoidance of uncertainty
Intolerance of uncertainty
Safety behaviours
Reassurance seeking
Checking behaviours

These behaviours can become automatic

Question 49

1. Which components of emotion tend to differ the most between different disorders?

Answer 49

Cognitions?

Question 50

2. Which components of emotion tend to be the least helpful in differentiating between different anxiety disorders?

Answer 50

Behaviours and physiological symptoms → can all be the same

Question 51

3. How does the core fear differ between panic disorder and agoraphobia?

Answer 51

Panic disorder : fear of panic attack symptoms
Agoraphobia : fear panic attacks in situations where escape is difficult or help unavailable

Question 52

4. What is the core fear associated with social anxiety disorder?

Answer 52

Fear of negative evaluation

Question 53

5. What are some disorders that are no longer considered in the anxiety category?

Answer 53

Ocd
Ptsd
Illness anxiety disorder

Question 54

1. Which emotion is most relevant for specific phobias and why?

Answer 54

Fear → it is an immediate threat rather than a future one

Components of emotion
Simulus → when it is directly encountered (threat is immediate/imminent and specific) (can also be provoked when individual imagine the stimulus
Conditions → an immediate, concrete, and overwhelming physical danger (severity)
Physiological → changes depend on the proximity of the threat and environmental context (ability to escape) → general autonomic arousal, blah blah blah → same thing with stress
Behaviour → escape type behaviours and avoidance behaviours

Question 55

2. What do people commonly think about when presented with their phobic stimulus?

Answer 55

Whether they can escape it

Question 56

3. What behaviours are most commonly seen when a person is confronted with a phobic stimulus?

Answer 56

‘Central feature’
Experience fear on immediate presentation of the fear
Patients with specific phobias experience anxiety and panic attacks along with unreasonable fear of exposure or anticipated exposure to a phobic stimulus. The anxiety response goes beyond normal apprehension and leads to avoidance behavior.

Question 57

4. We outlined the core symptoms of specific phobias. When does a person show these symptoms?

Answer 57

Upon immediate presentation of the fear
Physiological symptoms
Behvaioural symptoms → avoidance

Question 58

Which emotion is most relevant for GAD and why?

Answer 58

Anxiety and worry (many different concerns)
Worry feels uncontrollable → it is a chain of thoughts and images, negatively affect laden and relatively uncontrollable → uncertainty and future events (what ifs)
Anxiety → feelings restless and on edge → irritability and muscle tension (sleep disturbance)
Persistent
Excessive and unreasonable
Must cause distress and impairment
Does not have any other medical conditions

Question 59

What type of repetitive thought pattern is commonly experienced in GAD? What is the content of these thoughts?

Answer 59

Worry feels uncontrollable → it is a chain of thoughts and images, negatively affect laden and relatively uncontrollable → uncertainty and future events (what ifs)

Worries about multiple of these
Usually about
Competence and performance at work, school, and other pursuits
Health, wellbeing, and safety of self and family
Finances
Everyday occurrences e.g. household chores, punctuality
Catastrophic events e.g. earthquakes, war

Stimulus → varied, aversive mental imagery, type 1 worry (what if), uncertain/ambiguous stimuli/situation
Cognition → worry (what if) type 1, positive metacognitions about worry, negative metacognition about worry (worry about worry) type 2, negative problem orientation
Behaviours → cognitive avoidance, worry as avoidance of imagery and emotional/physiological arousal, avoidance of worry itself (type 1) via thought suppression, distraction, thought replacement; avoidance of worrisome situations

Question 60

GAD can often be accompanied by muscle tension, poor sleep etc. How are these different in GAD?

Answer 60

Persistent
Excessive and unreasonable
Must cause distress and impairment
Does not have any other medical conditions

Question 61

Describe verbal and imagery-based thoughts and how these relate to GAD.

Answer 61

Theory: The avoidance model of worry and GAD (AMW) → borkovec cognitive model of avoidance
Can have verbal/linguistic thoughts
Imagery based thoughts

Verbal thoughts elicit less emotional response to imagery

When we experience negative imagined worry → it translates to linguistic worry and behaviour because we can t handle the emotions behind the imagined worry so to make ourselves feel better we try to translate it to just a word (linguistic)

Question 62

How are the thoughts and behaviours in GAD negatively reinforced.

Answer 62

Theory: The avoidance model of worry and GAD (AMW) → borkovec cognitive model of avoidance
Can have verbal/linguistic thoughts
Imagery based thoughts

Verbal thoughts elicit less emotional response to imagery

When we experience negative imagined worry → it translates to linguistic worry and behaviour because we can t handle the emotions behind the imagined worry so to make ourselves feel better we try to translate it to just a word (linguistic)

Safety behaviours → when you do verbal linguistic worry → it takes away the negative feelings in the body

Positive metagcognition → thoughts about worry → belief that worry is helpful (prevents bad things from happening, helps cope) → this is problematic → we do it to avoid imagery → prevents us from confronting and emotionally processing these fears

Theory : the metacognitive model → Wells
Positive metacognitions lead us to worry more as we believe that it is good for us
Type one worry → everyday things (work, school)
Once the type one worry is activated → we have negative cognitions that come into play → worry doesnt feel good anymore → threatening and uncontrollable → we start to worry about worry = type two worry
Type 2 worry = worry about worry
Cognitive avoidance → try to avoid the type one worry so it doesnt progress into a type 2 worry → through distraction, avoidance, and replacement
This avoidance makes us feel better → negative reinforcement → we dont face worry and learn it isnt bad

Stimulus → varied, aversive mental imagery, type 1 worry (what if)
Cognition → type 1 worry triggers type 2 worry, positive metacognitions about worry turn into negative metacognition about worry
Behaviour → cognitive avoidance, worry as avoidance of imagery and emotional/physiological arousal, avoidance of worry itself (type 1) via thought suppression, distraction, thought replacement, avoidance of worrisome situations

Theory 3: intolerance of uncertainty model (dugas)
Intolerance of uncertainty → uncertain/ambiguous situations are inherently aversive and perceived as threatening, upsetting or undesirable
Intolerance of uncertainty + positive metacognitions about worry = engage in worry as a coping strategy
Negative problem orientation → negative beliefs about problems and abilities to problem solve → that all problems are bad = this discourages people from problem solving and makes them rely on positive metacognitions (worry)
Cognitive avoidance → avoid negative images and reactivity

Stimulus → varied, aversive mental imagery, type 1 worry (what if), uncertain/ambiguous stimuli/situation
Cognition → worry (what if) type 1, positive metacognitions about worry, negative metacognition about worry (worry about worry) type 2, negative problem orientation
Behaviours → cognitive avoidance, worry as avoidance of imagery and emotional/physiological arousal, avoidance of worry itself (type 1) via thought suppression, distraction, thought replacement; avoidance of worrisome situations

Question 63

Describe the core features of panic disorder.

Answer 63

Panic attacks → a sudden, intense surge of fear that peaks within minutes
Fight or flight response (symptoms)
Cognitive symptoms → fear of losing control, dying

Panic disorder → involves recurrent, unexpected panic attacks that seem to come out of the blue
Panic attacks are unpredictable
A change in behaviour to avoid having more panic attacks

Question 64

What is the core fear in panic disorder? (ie stimulus)

Answer 64

Fear of panic attacks
Aversive → dont want to have it again

Question 65

How would panic attacks differ in panic disorder versus a specific phobia?

Answer 65

In specific phobia, the phobic stimulus is specific to a particular situation rather than a general fear of difficulty escaping. Panic attacks can occur in specific phobia. Panic disorder is another anxiety disorder, in which panic attacks occur uncued or unexpected.

Question 66

How do panic disorder and agoraphobia differ?

Answer 66

Panic disorder → involves recurrent, unexpected panic attacks that seem to come out of the blue
Panic attacks are unpredictable
Fear of panic attacks
A change in behaviour to avoid having more panic attacks

Specific phobia
Panic attacks are specific to a specific stimulus
Fear of stimulus

Agoraphobia
Fear and avoidance of certain situations (public transport, open spaces, closed spaces)
Fear of having a panic attack and not being able to avoid it/get out/get help
Fear of having a panic attack in situations that are embarrassing/incapacitating symptoms (like falling over) → cant get out/get help
Avoiding situation entirely
Enduring situation with intense distress
Only facing situation with a companion
Must be disproportionate and excessive
Persistent
Cause distress and impairment
Isnt caused by other medical issues
Dont always have panic attacks → different to panic disorders

Question 67

How does the misinterpretation of physiological sensations drive panic disorder?

Answer 67

Cognitive model of panic (clark)
Forms the basis of cbt treatment of panic disorder
Misinterpretation of physiological sensations as threatening
Can be from non panic disorders → heart is racing because you’re exercising → misinterpretation of this can lead to panic disorder

Threat stimulus:
External (activity, situation)
Internal (thought, sensation)
Or non panic causes → emotions and exercise
→
Threat perception:
This could cause a panic attack or be hard to escape
→
Physiological changes in the body / bodily sensations
→
Catastrophic misinterpretation of sensations (e.g. heart attack)
→
Threat perception

Catastrophic misinterpretation of sensations (e.g. heart attack)
→
safety seeking behaviours (avoidance, escape, safety behaviours) (maintain disorder)
→
Short term reduction in fear physiology
→
belief that safety behaviours prevented bad outcome
→
Catastrophic misinterpretation of sensations (e.g. heart attack)
→
threat perception

Behavioural elements
CBT model:
The role of behaviours in maintaining cognitions
If you believe you are in danger you will act as though you are in danger
You will believe that you just missed the threat because of the safety behaviours
This is negative reinforcement

Stimulus:
Trigger stimulus
Non panic causes
Cognitions
Belief that safety seeking behaviours prevented catastrophic outcome
Catastrophic misinterpretation of sensations
Threat perceptions
Physiology
Short term reduction in fear physiology
Physiological changes in the body / bodily sensations
Behaviour
Safety seeking behaviours

Question 68

Describe how associative learning explains specific phobias.

Answer 68

Helps us learn about our environment and the consequences of our actions
This is learnt first hand (by the person)
Where neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus

Conditioned fear drives our avoidance behaviour → negative reinforcement
Avoidance behaviour stops the person from undergoing extinction learning

Fear is acquired through classical conditioning
Maintained by negative reinforcement (safety behaviours)
Prevents extinction learning

This is known as Mower’s dual process model of avoidance
Phobia is acquired through classical conditioning
Maintained by avoidance
^^ doesnt explain everything → some fears are learned through modeling or a predisposition to that phobia (preparedness theory)

Some people dont have phobias after negative experiences → maybe because they had more good experiences than bad → or because there is no innate fear to the object (preparedness theory)

Habit = overlearning → may complete the avoidance behaviour out of habit even when extinction learning has occurred

Question 69

What is “stress”?

Answer 69

Stress is a broad, non-specific physiological response that occurs when there is a demand for change on the body. It’s the body’s attempt to restore equilibrium and return to homeostasis after any type of change, whether positive or negative.

Question 70

What are some physical stressors?

Answer 70

Some physical stressors include disturbances to the body’s physiology, such as injuries, illnesses, or infections.

Question 71

What are some psychological stressors a person may experience?

Answer 71

Psychological stressors can include anticipating perceived threats, facing aversive environmental stimuli (like bad weather), detecting cues for danger, or experiencing unmet basic needs (e.g., hunger, thirst, or lack of sleep).

Question 72

List some negative effects of stress.

Answer 72

Negative effects of stress include shorter leukocyte telomeres, increased illness frequency, greater incidence of obesity, poorer general health, higher risk of physical disability, increased symptoms of depression and anxiety, reduced cognitive capability, cardiovascular problems (e.g., hypertension, coronary artery calcification), and an increased risk of sudden coronary death or death from any cause.

Question 73

What does the Yerkes-Dodson curve explain?

Answer 73

The Yerkes-Dodson curve explains the relationship between stress (or arousal) and performance. It shows that a moderate level of stress leads to optimal performance, while too little or too much stress can impair performance. It suggests that some stress is necessary for motivation and performance, but excessive stress can be overwhelming and detrimental.

intensity of stressor effects motivation
Chronicity → duration of stress (long term stress is harmful)

Question 74

What is a “Challenge State”?

Answer 74

A “Challenge State” occurs when an individual perceives a situation as a challenge that they believe they have the resources to handle. This perception leads to a stress response that enhances performance. In this state, the person feels prepared and capable of meeting the demands of the task, such as an exam or a performance situation.

Question 75

What does the Biopsychosocial Model of Challenge and Threat say about appraisals?

Answer 75

The Biopsychosocial Model of Challenge and Threat suggests that when faced with a situation requiring performance (like an exam), people make two main appraisals:
Demands: How difficult the task is.
Resources: How prepared they are to handle the task.
If the perceived resources outweigh the demands, a challenge state is evoked. If the demands are perceived to outweigh the resources, a threat state is activated.

Question 76

What physiological responses are associated with a challenge state?

Answer 76

In a challenge state, the Sympatho-Adrenal-Medullary (SAM) system is activated, leading to an increase in heart rate and blood flow. This state also promotes responsive reactivity, meaning the stress response comes on quickly and returns to normal faster once the challenge is over, supporting better recovery after stress.

Question 77

How does the threat state differ from the challenge state?

Answer 77

In a threat state, both the SAM system and the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis are activated. The HPA axis leads to the release of cortisol, which can dampen the SAM response (resulting in little change in heart rate) and prolongs the stress response. The threat state leads to a more sustained, less efficient stress response, which can be harmful to performance and health over time.

Question 78

Which mindset would be most helpful for our PSYC1024 final exam?

Answer 78

A “stress-as-enhancing” mindset would be most helpful for the PSYC1024 final exam. This mindset involves viewing stress as a useful tool that can enhance performance rather than something debilitating. This mindset encourages students to embrace stress as a resource, improving their ability to cope and perform well under pressure, leading to better outcomes and reduced anxiety.