PSYC1022 Flashcards
1
Q
What are the four classifications of drugs based on their effects on the CNS?
A
Depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens, and other.
2
Q
How was alcohol first produced historically?
A
By fermenting fruit, with early evidence from Neolithic China.
3
Q
What is laudanum, and why was it popular in Victorian England?
A
A mixture of opium and alcohol; popular among women because alcohol consumption was seen as undignified.
4
Q
Who first isolated morphine, and what was its original use?
A
Friedrich Sertürner in 1803; used as a painkiller and sedative.
5
Q
Why was heroin initially marketed as a medical drug, and what was the result?
A
It was believed to be a non-addictive alternative to morphine, but widespread dependence led to its ban.
6
Q
Which of the following is NOT a depressant?
a) Alcohol
b) Morphine
c) Cocaine
d) Heroin
A
Answer: c) Cocaine (Cocaine is a stimulant).
7
Q
Which civilization documented the use of opium for calming crying children?
a) Romans
b) Ancient Egyptians
c) Chinese dynasties
d) Mayans
A
Answer: b) Ancient Egyptians.
8
Q
Which drug was initially marketed as a “safe” alternative to morphine?
a) Codeine
b) Heroin
c) Laudanum
d) Opium
A
Answer: b) Heroin.
9
Q
Which depressant is still commonly prescribed for pain relief and cough suppression?
a) Morphine
b) Codeine
c) Heroin
d) Laudanum
A
Answer: b) Codeine.
10
Q
Which factor is most strongly correlated with alcohol consumption?
a) Geographic location
b) Age
c) Economic development of a country
d) Climate
A
Answer: c) Economic development of a country.
11
Q
Sarah is conducting research on alcohol consumption and its health effects. She finds that alcohol is legal in most countries despite its association with 3.3 million deaths per year. She asks:
Why do you think alcohol remains legal despite its risks?
What factors contribute to higher alcohol consumption in developed countries?
A
Answer: Alcohol is culturally ingrained, has economic benefits (e.g., taxes and industry jobs), and moderate use is socially acceptable. Higher consumption in developed countries is linked to affordability, availability, and lifestyle factors.
12
Q
A hospital is considering switching from morphine to codeine for post-surgery pain management. A doctor argues that morphine is stronger but more addictive, while codeine is safer but less effective.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using codeine over morphine?
How should the hospital decide which drug to use?
A
Answer: Codeine has a lower addiction risk but is weaker than morphine. The hospital should weigh pain management effectiveness against the risk of dependency, possibly using codeine for mild cases and morphine for severe pain under strict monitoring.
13
Q
Imagine you are a historian studying opium use in ancient Egypt. You discover a papyrus that describes using opium to soothe infants.
What ethical concerns arise from this practice?
How does this compare to modern medical use of opioids?
A
Answer: Ethical concerns include the risk of addiction, unknown long-term effects, and lack of informed consent. Today, opioids are used under strict regulations for medical purposes, with awareness of their risks.
14
Q
What was Rodrigo de Rez imprisoned for?
A
Smoking tobacco, which was believed to be demonic.
15
Q
Why did Spanish Conquistadors commercialize coca leaves?
A
They noticed it increased enslaved workers’ productivity.
16
Q
Why was cocaine removed from Coca-Cola?
A
Cocaine prohibition laws led to its removal in 1904.
17
Q
How did amphetamines impact World War II soldiers?
A
They increased alertness but also caused addiction and performance impairment.
18
Q
What is the main difference between amphetamine and methamphetamine?
A
Methamphetamine has an extra methyl group, making it more potent and easily absorbed into the CNS.
19
Q
Which stimulant was used in the Blitzkrieg strategy?
a) Cocaine
b) Nicotine
c) Methamphetamine
d) Ephedrine
A
Answer: c) Methamphetamine.
20
Q
What stimulant was originally used in Coca-Cola?
a) Nicotine
b) Cocaine
c) Methamphetamine
d) Ephedrine
A
Answer: b) Cocaine.
21
Q
Which country’s military used amphetamines during the Vietnam War?
a) Germany
b) USA
c) Japan
d) France
A
Answer: b) USA.
22
Q
Why is freebase cocaine more dangerous than crack cocaine?
a) It contains more sodium bicarbonate.
b) It requires ether, which is highly flammable.
c) It is less potent than crack.
d) It cannot be smoked.
A
Answer: b) It requires ether, which is highly flammable.
23
Q
What is the primary function of nicotine in the tobacco plant?
a) Helps with photosynthesis
b) Attracts pollinators
c) Acts as a neurotoxin to repel herbivores
d) Increases plant growth rate
A
Answer: c) Acts as a neurotoxin to repel herbivores.
24
Q
A government is considering banning tobacco sales due to its health risks but is concerned about the economic impact.
What are the short-term and long-term economic effects of banning tobacco?
How did King James I’s policy reflect this dilemma?
A
Answer:
Short-term: Loss of tax revenue and economic disruption.
Long-term: Reduced healthcare costs and increased productivity.
King James I condemned tobacco but taxed it heavily, showing a balance between public health and financial interests.
25
A pharmaceutical company is researching cocaine’s potential medical applications.
What were cocaine’s historical medical uses?
What are the risks of reintroducing it as a treatment?
Answer:
Cocaine was used as an anesthetic and cognitive enhancer.
Risks include high addiction potential and misuse, outweighing potential medical benefits.
26
A military is considering using amphetamines to keep soldiers alert.
What are the historical benefits and drawbacks of amphetamine use in war?
Should the military proceed? Why or why not?
Answer:
Benefits: Increased alertness and endurance.
Drawbacks: Addiction, impaired judgment, and long-term health consequences.
The military should consider non-addictive alternatives.
27
What is the primary psychoactive component of cannabis?
a) Cannabidiol (CBD)
b) Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
c) Safrole
d) MDMA
Answer: b) Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
28
Who first synthesized MDMA?
a) Alexander Shulgin
b) John Hoffman
c) Anton Köllisch
d) Max Oberlin
Answer: c) Anton Köllisch
29
What is the primary precursor used to synthesize MDMA?
a) Ephedrine
b) Safrole
c) Cocaine
d) Hashish
Answer: b) Safrole
30
Which ancient text contains one of the earliest references to cannabis use?
a) The Quran
b) The Hindu Vedas
c) The Bible
d) The Odyssey
Answer: b) The Hindu Vedas
31
In what decade did MDMA gain popularity in rave culture?
a) 1950s
b) 1960s
c) 1970s
d) 1980s
Answer: d) 1980s
32
Question: Sarah is a psychologist exploring alternative therapies for PTSD. She reads about MDMA-assisted therapy and wonders why MDMA, originally developed for medical use, is now prohibited. Explain how MDMA’s history and classification impact its potential therapeutic use today.
Answer:
MDMA was originally synthesized for medical research but remained unused for decades. In the 1970s, it was rediscovered by Alexander Shulgin, who noted its therapeutic effects, including mood enhancement and improved therapeutic engagement. However, due to its increasing use in rave culture during the 1980s, it was prohibited in 1985. Despite this, recent research has revived interest in MDMA-assisted therapy for PTSD and depression. Current clinical trials explore its controlled use under professional supervision to minimize risks while maximizing therapeutic benefits.
33
Question: Jack suffers from chronic pain and is considering medical cannabis. However, he is unsure whether it is legal in Australia and how THC and CBD affect the body differently. What would you tell him?
Answer:
In Australia, cannabis remains a Schedule 9 prohibited substance, but medical cannabis is legal for certain conditions such as chronic pain, epilepsy, muscle spasticity, and chemotherapy-induced nausea. THC is the main psychoactive compound responsible for intoxication, while CBD has therapeutic effects without a high. Some medical cannabis products contain high CBD and low THC to maximize benefits while minimizing psychoactive effects. Jack can consult his doctor for an off-label prescription if other treatments fail.
34
Question: A university student buys a “legal high” called Spice, believing it to be a safer alternative to cannabis. What risks should he be aware of?
Answer:
Synthetic cannabis products like Spice contain lab-made cannabinoids that bind more strongly to cannabinoid receptors, often leading to stronger and unpredictable effects compared to natural cannabis. Risks include hallucinations, paranoia, seizures, heart problems, and even fatalities. Unlike cannabis, synthetic cannabinoids are not well-regulated and may contain harmful chemical additives. Despite being marketed as a “legal” alternative, they are often more dangerous and subject to legal bans.
35
Which country is the world's largest producer of opium?
Afghanistan
36
What is the primary route for heroin trafficking from Afghanistan to Europe?
The Balkan Route (through Iran, Turkey, and the Balkans)
37
Which countries are the main producers of cocaine?
Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia
38
What proportion of the global population aged 15-64 reported drug use in 2017?
5.5%
39
Which drug has the highest global use?
Cannabis (188 million users in 2017)
40
What percentage of drug users develop drug use disorders?
Approximately 13%
41
What role has Africa played in recent cocaine trafficking trends?
It has become an emerging hub for global cocaine supply and trafficking.
42
How does the "War on Drugs" relate to global drug use trends?
Despite efforts to curb drug use, prevalence has remained stable over time.
43
Scenario: You are a policy analyst examining the impact of drug prohibition. Given the lecture information, propose one policy change that could reduce the black market influence on drug trade.
Suggested Answer: A shift from prohibition to regulated decriminalization, such as controlled legal markets for some drugs, may reduce black market profits and related criminal activities while allowing better public health interventions.
44
Scenario: You are a UNODC researcher. Based on the data trends, predict the potential impact of Afghanistan’s opium ban on global heroin supply.
Suggested Answer: If the ban is effectively enforced, heroin supply may decline, leading to higher prices and potential shifts in trafficking routes. However, illegal production may relocate to Myanmar or other regions.
45
Scenario: You are an advocate debating drug policy reform. Using the data on drug use prevalence and problem users, argue against the effectiveness of strict prohibitionist policies.
Suggested Answer: The stability of drug use prevalence (5.5%) and the unchanged proportion of problem users (13%) indicate that strict prohibition has not significantly reduced drug consumption. Alternative harm-reduction strategies, such as decriminalization and treatment access, may be more effective in addressing substance abuse.
46
What percentage of the global population used illicit drugs in the past year according to the UNODC (2017)?
5.5%.
47
What is the estimated risk that drug experimentation will lead to dependence?
Approximately 13.4%, though a general rule of thumb is around 20%.
48
Why are self-report surveys on drug use potentially unreliable?
Participants may not be honest due to fear of incrimination or self-serving bias. Dependent users may also be underrepresented.
49
What method can supplement self-report surveys to estimate drug use more accurately?
Wastewater analysis.
50
Which age group has the highest prevalence of illicit drug use?
20-29 years old.
51
How has the age of first alcohol and tobacco use changed over time?
It has gradually increased, indicating that younger generations are delaying initiation.
52
What are some key demographic risk factors for initiating drug use?
Family environment (drug-using siblings, parental attitudes), community factors (drug availability, crime), and societal influences (laws, regulation, taxation).
53
How does Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development explain the influence of older siblings on drug use?
Younger individuals learn behaviors from older siblings, particularly of the same sex, making them more likely to adopt drug use if the older sibling uses.
54
Case: A government agency wants to estimate drug use trends in a major city. They conduct a self-report survey, which suggests that MDMA is the most commonly used stimulant. However, wastewater analysis in the same city shows methamphetamine use is far higher.
What could explain the discrepancy between the survey data and wastewater analysis?
Why might people be more willing to report MDMA use than methamphetamine use?
Self-report surveys may underreport certain drug use due to stigma or recall bias, whereas wastewater analysis objectively detects actual consumption.
MDMA may be perceived as more socially acceptable, while methamphetamine carries a stronger stigma.
55
Case: Alex is a 16-year-old male with an 18-year-old brother who uses cannabis regularly. Their family has a history of substance use, and their neighborhood has high drug availability.
Based on risk factors, what is Alex’s likelihood of trying cannabis?
Would Alex be at a greater risk if his older sibling was male or female? Why?
How does the concept of knowledge transfer explain why Alex might start using drugs?
High, due to his older brother's influence, family history, and environmental factors.
Higher risk if male, because same-sex siblings are more influential in behavior modeling.
His older brother can provide knowledge on where to obtain drugs and how to use them, making initiation easier.
56
Case: A country is considering decriminalizing certain drugs to reduce harm and improve public health outcomes. Opponents argue that it will increase drug use.
How might decriminalization impact drug use trends based on research?
What societal factors could still influence drug use rates even if laws are relaxed?
Evidence suggests that decriminalization may not necessarily increase use but can reduce harm by improving access to treatment.
Price, taxation, law enforcement practices, and social attitudes toward drug use.
57
Q1: What are positive and negative drug expectancies, and how do they influence drug initiation?
A1: Positive expectancies (belief that a drug is pleasurable) increase drug use likelihood, while negative expectancies (belief it is harmful) decrease the likelihood.
58
Q2: How does early drug use increase the risk of dependence?
A2: Younger individuals are more vulnerable to addiction even after the same duration of use as older individuals. Early exposure extends the time available for dependence to develop.
59
Q3: What role do parents and peers play in drug initiation?
A3: Exposure to parental and peer drug use increases positive drug expectancies in adolescents, leading to earlier initiation.
60
: What is the gateway hypothesis?
A4: The idea that drug use follows a predictable sequence: alcohol/tobacco → marijuana → pills → harder drugs.
61
Q5: What are the two main ways people quit drug use?
Natural recovery (self-initiated quitting, common in 30-40-year-olds).
Treatment-assisted recovery (involves formal intervention, often legally or socially motivated).
62
Scenario 1: Parental Influence on Drug Use
📌 Jack, a 14-year-old, grows up in a household where both parents drink frequently and talk about alcohol as a way to relax and socialize. By 16, Jack has started drinking regularly. How does this scenario reflect expectancy theory?
✅ Answer:
Jack's exposure to parental alcohol use and their positive beliefs about drinking increase his positive expectancies of alcohol, leading to early initiation. This aligns with studies showing that children of heavy drinkers tend to start drinking earlier and more frequently.
63
Scenario 2: Early Drug Use and Dependence
📌 Anna and Ben both start using cocaine at different ages. Anna starts at 16, while Ben starts at 25. Both use it for 7 years. Who is more likely to develop dependence, and why?
✅ Answer:
Anna is more likely to develop dependence because younger individuals are more sensitive to the dependence-forming effects of drugs, even when using for the same duration as older users.
64
Scenario 3: Drug Liking and Future Use
📌 Tom and Lisa both try marijuana at a party. Tom finds it enjoyable and feels relaxed, while Lisa feels dizzy and nauseous. Two years later, Tom is a regular user, but Lisa has never used it again. Why?
✅ Answer:
Tom's positive initial experience increased his likelihood of continued use, while Lisa’s negative experience did not necessarily deter her, but since negative experiences were uncommon in studies, they did not strongly predict later dependence.
65
Scenario 4: Polydrug Use and Cross-Sensitization
📌 David smokes marijuana regularly. Over time, he starts experimenting with cocaine and finds it highly pleasurable. How does cross-sensitization explain this progression?
✅ Answer:
Cross-sensitization suggests that David's marijuana use sensitized his brain's reward system, making other drugs (like cocaine) more rewarding and increasing the likelihood of progression to harder substances.
66
Scenario 5: Chippers vs. Addicts
📌 Emma and Jake both use heroin. Emma only uses it once a month, while Jake uses it daily and struggles with dependence. Based on research, how would they be classified?
✅ Answer:
Emma would be classified as a "chipper," someone who maintains a stable, low level of drug use without developing dependence. Jake, however, follows the typical trajectory of addiction.
67
What are potential mechanisms linking drug use to poor educational attainment?
Drug use may cause educational decline (demotivation, countercultural values, study time displacement).
Poor academic performance may lead to increased drug use.
A third variable (e.g., impulsivity, family issues) may influence both.
68
Why is the association between drug use and lower educational attainment debated?
Studies (e.g., McLeod et al.) suggest third variables (e.g., antisocial behavior) may drive both, making the link indirect.
69
69
How does drug use affect occupational attainment over time?
Early adulthood (24-29): Higher income due to early workforce entry.
Later adulthood (29-35): Lower income due to reduced career growth and poor job performance.
70
What neuropathological effects are associated with long-term nicotine use?
Reduced grey matter in the frontal cortex, impacting decision-making and executive functions.
71
How does methamphetamine affect the brain, and is recovery possible?
Reduces dopamine activity in the striatum.
Some recovery occurs with prolonged abstinence, but long-term users show less recovery.
72
What are the key principles of harm minimization?
Substance use is inevitable.
Drug use exists on a spectrum.
Different substances and use patterns have different harms.
Multiple strategies can reduce harm.
73
How do needle exchange programs benefit both drug users and society?
Reduce transmission of HIV and hepatitis.
Prevent improper disposal, lowering the risk of needle-stick injuries.
74
Why is it difficult to determine causality between drug use and brain abnormalities in human studies?
Pre-existing conditions (e.g., prior brain differences) may contribute.
Many users are polydrug users, making it hard to isolate effects.
Ethical limitations prevent controlled experiments in humans.
75
James, a high school student, starts using cannabis regularly. Over time, his grades decline, and he becomes less interested in school. Some researchers argue that drug use caused his academic decline, while others suggest that underlying issues (e.g., low motivation, impulsivity) contributed to both his drug use and poor academic performance.
Question:
Based on research, what are possible explanations for James' decline in academic performance?
76
Maria, 27, has been a recreational cocaine user for several years. Initially, she excelled in a high-paying sales job. However, she has recently begun missing work frequently and struggling to meet performance targets.
Question:
How does Maria’s situation align with the research on occupational attainment and drug use?
Early career success may be due to early workforce entry.
As drug use continues, performance declines (e.g., absenteeism, reduced productivity).
Long-term, she may experience lower occupational success.
77
Liam, a city health official, is tasked with reducing the harms of heroin use in his community. Some people oppose harm minimization, arguing that it encourages drug use. Liam wants to implement a needle exchange program.
Question:
How could Liam justify the program using harm minimization principles?
Substance use is inevitable, so reducing harm is crucial.
Clean needles reduce the spread of diseases like HIV and hepatitis.
The program protects both users and the broader community.
78
What are the three main categories of drug-related harm?
Medical harms, social harms, and economic harms.
79
What are DALY, YLD, and YLL?
DALY (Disability-Adjusted Life Years) = YLL (Years of Life Lost) + YLD (Years Lived with Disability).
80
Which substance is responsible for the most deaths worldwide?
Tobacco (5.1 million deaths in 2004).
81
Why do higher SES populations contribute more to the burden of disease from alcohol and tobacco?
More disposable income leads to greater consumption, increasing harm.
82
Which drug was rated as the most harmful overall in the Australian study?
Alcohol (due to harm to users and others).
83
What are some criticisms of drug classification systems?
They often reflect moral judgments rather than empirical harm assessments.
84
Why do illicit drugs contribute less to the global burden of disease than alcohol and tobacco?
Lower prevalence of use compared to legal substances.
85
What is the main difference between Pavlovian and instrumental conditioning?
Pavlovian conditioning is involuntary (learning predictive relationships), whereas instrumental conditioning involves voluntary behaviors aimed at obtaining rewards or avoiding punishment.
86
How does Thorndike’s Law of Effect explain learning?
Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely, while those followed by discomfort become less likely.
87
What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement?
Positive reinforcement adds a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., giving a dog a treat for sitting).
Negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., taking painkillers to remove a headache).
88
Which reinforcement schedule leads to the most persistent behavior?
Variable ratio (VR), because the reward is unpredictable (e.g., gambling).
89
How does instrumental conditioning contribute to addiction?
Drug-seeking behaviors (e.g., going to a dealer) are reinforced because they lead to a rewarding outcome (drug use).
90
What is Pavlovian-Instrumental Transfer (PIT)?
When a Pavlovian CS (e.g., a pub) triggers both an involuntary physiological response and a voluntary instrumental response (buying a drink).
91
A student checks their phone for messages. Sometimes a message is there, sometimes not.
Which reinforcement schedule is this?
Variable interval (VI) – The reward (message) comes at unpredictable times.
92
A person takes aspirin to relieve a headache.
What type of reinforcement is this?
Negative reinforcement – The behavior (taking aspirin) increases because it removes an aversive stimulus (pain).
93
A child is caught cheating on a test. Their parents take away their video game console for a week.
What type of conditioning is this?
Negative punishment (omission) – A pleasant stimulus (video games) is removed to reduce cheating behavior.
94
John used to drink heavily in a specific bar. After months of sobriety, he walks past that bar and suddenly craves alcohol.
Why does this happen?
The bar (CS) triggers a Pavlovian response (craving) and an instrumental response (desire to enter and drink), illustrating PIT.
95
What is Pavlovian (Classical) Conditioning?
A learning process where organisms associate one event (CS) with another event (US) to predict future occurrences.
96
What is the difference between an unconditioned and conditioned stimulus?
An unconditioned stimulus (US) automatically triggers a response (e.g., food → salivation).
A conditioned stimulus (CS) initially has no effect but gains meaning through association with a US (e.g., bell → salivation).
97
How does Gormezano’s rabbit experiment demonstrate aversive conditioning?
Rabbits learned to blink (CR) when hearing a noise (CS) that predicted an air puff (US), showing that even defensive reflexes can be conditioned.
98
What does Hebb’s Rule mean in Pavlovian conditioning?
"Cells that fire together, wire together"—neural connections strengthen when stimuli are repeatedly paired, reinforcing the conditioned response.
99
How did Rosala challenge Pavlov’s original model?
He showed that CS elicits an expectation of the US, rather than a direct reflex. When rats learned that food made them sick, they stopped responding to the CS, proving the response is based on cognition rather than an automatic reaction.
100
Who disproved the balloonist theory of movement control?
Luigi Galvani (showed electrical energy, not fluids, controls muscle movement).
101
What was Camillo Golgi's major contribution to neuroscience?
He developed a staining method that allowed visualization of neurons, leading to neuron theory.
102
What are the two main types of synaptic potentials?
Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) and Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs).
103
What is the function of the myelin sheath?
It insulates the axon and speeds up electrical signal transmission.
104
How does reuptake affect neurotransmission?
Reuptake removes excess neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft, regulating signal strength.
105
The resting membrane potential is positive inside the neuron.
(False – it’s negative inside, ~ -70mV).
106
Nodes of Ranvier slow down electrical conduction.
(False – they speed it up by allowing electrical signals to jump between them.)
107
An action potential is triggered when sodium ions enter the neuron.
(True – this causes depolarization and signal transmission.)
108
Drugs of abuse can alter neuron firing rates by modifying synaptic transmission.
(True – they interfere with excitatory/inhibitory balance.)
109
The synaptic cleft is the physical connection between two neurons.
(False – it is a gap, not a physical connection.)
110
Q: A neuroscientist is studying a neuron with a damaged myelin sheath. What effect would this have on signal transmission?
A: The neuron would transmit signals more slowly because the myelin sheath normally speeds up electrical conduction. The signal may degrade before reaching the terminal buttons, leading to impaired communication.
111
Q: A patient has a condition where their sodium channels fail to open properly. What impact would this have on their nervous system?
A: If sodium channels don’t open, action potentials cannot be triggered, leading to impaired neural communication. This could result in muscle weakness, sensory deficits, or cognitive impairments.
112
Q: A drug increases the release of excitatory neurotransmitters at the synaptic cleft. What effect would this have on neural activity?
A: The drug would increase the likelihood of action potentials in receiving neurons, potentially leading to heightened brain activity, increased alertness, or even excitotoxicity (overstimulation of neurons).
113
Q: A person takes a drug that enhances inhibitory neurotransmitter function. What effect would this have on their behavior?
A: Increased inhibitory neurotransmitter function would make neurons less likely to fire, leading to relaxation, sedation, or even drowsiness, depending on the drug’s strength.
114
Q: A researcher observes changes in the dendritic spines of neurons in the prefrontal cortex of rats exposed to methamphetamine. What does this suggest about drug effects on the brain?
A: It suggests that methamphetamine alters the structure of neurons, which could impact learning, decision-making, and impulse control, contributing to addiction-related changes in behavior.
115
What is the difference between an agonist and an antagonist?
Agonists activate receptors, while antagonists block them.
116
What are the three main dopamine pathways in the brain?
Nigrostriatal (movement), Mesolimbic (reward & addiction), Mesocortical (cognition & emotion).
117
Which dopamine pathway is most relevant to addiction?
The mesolimbic pathway (VTA → Nucleus Accumbens).
118
What is the function of serotonin in addiction?
It regulates mood, arousal, learning, and memory. Drugs like MDMA increase serotonin levels, enhancing mood.
119
How does cocaine affect dopamine?
It blocks dopamine reuptake, increasing dopamine in the synapse.
120
How do amphetamines affect dopamine?
They increase dopamine release and reverse dopamine reuptake, leading to excessive dopamine availability.
121
Why are opioids addictive?
They increase dopamine release by inhibiting GABA neurons, leading to euphoria.
122
What is the function of the dose-response curve?
It shows how increasing drug doses affect behavioral responses, with an S-shaped curve due to neural firing limits.
123
Scenario 1:
A patient is prescribed an SSRI for depression, which increases serotonin levels by preventing reuptake. They later try MDMA at a party and report feeling euphoric.
Q1: Why does MDMA enhance mood similarly to SSRIs?
Q2: Based on the addiction potential table, is MDMA as addictive as cocaine? Why or why not?
Q1: Why does MDMA enhance mood similarly to SSRIs?
MDMA also blocks serotonin reuptake, causing a temporary surge in serotonin.
Q2: Based on the addiction potential table, is MDMA as addictive as cocaine? Why or why not?
No, MDMA has a lower dopamine-releasing effect than cocaine, making it less addictive.
124
A researcher gives rats access to a lever that administers cocaine. Over time, the rats press the lever compulsively.
Q1: What does this experiment demonstrate about cocaine?
Q2: What would happen if the rats’ nucleus accumbens were lesioned?
Q1: What does this experiment demonstrate about cocaine?
It is rewarding and reinforces self-administration, indicating addictive potential.
Q2: What would happen if the rats’ nucleus accumbens were lesioned?
They would stop self-administering cocaine, showing the nucleus accumbens' role in addiction.
125
A person suffering from chronic pain is prescribed opioids. Over time, they start taking more than prescribed and struggle to stop.
Q1: How do opioids reduce pain?
Q2: Why do opioids have high addiction potential?
Q1: How do opioids reduce pain?
They bind to opioid receptors, blocking pain signals by inhibiting neurotransmitter release.
Q2: Why do opioids have high addiction potential?
They increase dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens, leading to intense euphoria and reinforcement of use.
126
A scientist discovers a new drug that blocks dopamine receptors.
Q1: Would this drug be likely to increase or decrease addiction? Why?
Q2: What might be a side effect of this drug?
Q1: Would this drug be likely to increase or decrease addiction? Why?
Decrease addiction, because blocking dopamine receptors would reduce the reward response.
Q2: What might be a side effect of this drug?
Reduced motivation, anhedonia (lack of pleasure), possible movement impairments (similar to Parkinson’s symptoms).
127
What are the three major dopamine pathways?
Nigrostriatal, mesolimbic, and mesocortical.
128
Which dopamine pathway is most relevant to addiction?
The mesolimbic pathway (VTA → nucleus accumbens).
129
How do cocaine and amphetamines affect dopamine levels?
Cocaine blocks dopamine reuptake.
Amphetamines reverse dopamine transport, releasing more dopamine.
130
Why is serotonin important in mood regulation?
It affects positive mood, arousal, and cognition.
131
How does MDMA (Ecstasy) work in the brain?
It blocks serotonin reuptake, increasing serotonin in the synaptic cleft.
132
What role do endorphins play in addiction?
They reduce pain and increase pleasure, making opioids highly addictive.
133
What is the significance of the dose-response curve?
It shows how drug effects increase with dose until a maximum response is reached.
134
A patient takes a drug that mimics a neurotransmitter and activates a receptor. Is this drug an agonist or antagonist?
Agonist (it mimics neurotransmitters and activates receptors).
135
A scientist observes that rats will press a lever to receive a drug. What does this indicate?
The drug is rewarding and likely increases dopamine in the nucleus accumbens.
136
A person has taken an opioid and reports feeling no pain and extreme relaxation. What neurotransmitter system is involved?
Endorphins (opioid receptors) and dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens.
137
A researcher gives a rat a drug that blocks dopamine receptors. What effect will this have on drug-seeking behavior?
The rat will show reduced drug-seeking because dopamine release is blocked, making the drug less rewarding.
138
Why is MDMA considered less addictive than cocaine or amphetamines?
MDMA mainly affects serotonin, while cocaine and amphetamines act more strongly on dopamine, which is key for addiction.
139
What is the difference between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters?
Excitatory neurotransmitters (e.g., glutamate) increase neural activity.
Inhibitory neurotransmitters (e.g., GABA) decrease neural activity.
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Define an agonist and an antagonist. Give an example of each.
Agonist: A drug that mimics a neurotransmitter and activates a receptor (e.g., heroin, which mimics endorphins).
Antagonist: A drug that blocks a receptor, preventing neurotransmitter effects (e.g., naloxone, which blocks opioid receptors).
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Which neurotransmitters are most relevant to drug addiction?
Dopamine (reward/motivation), serotonin (mood), and endorphins (pain relief).
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What is the mesolimbic dopamine pathway, and why is it important in addiction?
It’s the brain's reward system (VTA → nucleus accumbens).
Drugs that increase dopamine in this pathway are highly addictive.
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How does cocaine affect dopamine transmission?
It blocks dopamine reuptake, leading to excessive dopamine in the synapse.
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How do amphetamines differ from cocaine in their effect on dopamine?
Amphetamines reverse dopamine transport, forcing more dopamine into the synapse.
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What experimental evidence supports dopamine’s role in addiction?
Olds & Milner (1954): Rats repeatedly pressed a lever for electrical stimulation of the dopamine pathway.
Wise (1996): Blocking dopamine receptors reduced drug-seeking behavior.
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What role does serotonin play in drug effects?
It regulates mood, cognition, and emotional responses.
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How does MDMA (Ecstasy) affect serotonin levels?
It blocks serotonin reuptake, increasing serotonin in the synapse.
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Why is MDMA considered less addictive than cocaine?
MDMA primarily affects serotonin, whereas cocaine acts more strongly on dopamine, which is key for addiction.
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What are endorphins, and how do they contribute to opioid addiction?
Endorphins are the brain’s natural painkillers.
Opioids (e.g., heroin) mimic endorphins, leading to euphoria and addiction.
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How do opioids increase dopamine release?
They inhibit GABA, which normally restricts dopamine release.
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What happens when the nucleus accumbens is damaged in opioid-addicted rats?
Drug-seeking behavior decreases because the reward system is disrupted.
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What does a dose-response curve show?
It plots drug dose vs. effect, showing how responses change with increasing doses.
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What is ED50 in a dose-response curve?
It is the dose that produces 50% of the maximum response.
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What is excitotoxicity, and how can stimulant overuse cause it?
Excitotoxicity is neuronal damage due to excessive stimulation.
High doses of stimulants cause prolonged overactivation, leading to cell death.
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A person takes a drug that blocks dopamine receptors. How would this affect addiction potential?
The drug would reduce addiction potential by blocking dopamine-related reward effects.
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A researcher finds that rats no longer self-administer a drug after a specific brain lesion. Where was the lesion most likely located?
The nucleus accumbens, since it’s key in the dopamine reward system.
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A patient overdoses on heroin. What drug should be administered, and how does it work?
Naloxone, an opioid antagonist, blocks opioid receptors to reverse overdose effects.
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Why might an antidepressant that increases serotonin (e.g., SSRI) not be as addictive as cocaine?
SSRIs increase serotonin gradually, while cocaine rapidly boosts dopamine, making it more addictive.
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A patient reports extreme euphoria, energy, and an inability to sleep after drug use. What class of drug have they likely taken?
A stimulant (e.g., cocaine or amphetamines) due to increased dopamine and arousal.
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What is the primary role of acetylcholine in cognition?
Acetylcholine enhances attention, memory, and response to sensory events.
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How does nicotine affect the nervous system?
Nicotine binds to acetylcholine receptors, exciting neurons and increasing dopamine, endorphins, and cognitive function.
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Which neurotransmitter is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS?
GABA.
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What is the role of glutamate in learning and memory?
Glutamate strengthens synaptic connections via long-term potentiation (LTP).
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Which two neurotransmitter systems does alcohol affect, and how?
Alcohol increases GABA (sedation, motor impairment) and reduces glutamate (memory impairment, blackouts).
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What role does the CB1 receptor play in neurotransmission?
CB1 receptors regulate neurotransmitter release and are involved in THC’s effects on dopamine.
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How does THC indirectly increase dopamine release?
THC inhibits GABA interneurons, which normally suppress dopamine firing in the VTA, leading to increased dopamine release.
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Q: A researcher conducts an experiment where participants complete a rapid visual information processing task before and after nicotine administration. What results would you expect, and why?
A: After nicotine administration, participants should show faster reaction times because nicotine enhances acetylcholine activity, improving cognitive processing
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Q: A person drinks excessive alcohol and experiences memory blackouts. Explain the neuropharmacological mechanism behind this.
A: Alcohol blocks glutamate receptors, reducing synaptic activity in areas like the hippocampus, leading to memory formation impairment (blackouts).
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Q: A study finds that THC increases dopamine activity in the nucleus accumbens. How does this occur?
A: THC binds to CB1 receptors on GABA interneurons, inhibiting GABA release. Since GABA normally suppresses dopamine, its inhibition leads to dopamine disinhibition and increased firing, reinforcing THC’s rewarding effects.
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1. What are the two key pharmacological criteria for substance use disorders in the DSM-5?
Answer: Tolerance (need for increased doses or diminished effect) and Withdrawal (characteristic syndrome after stopping substance use).
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2. How does receptor desensitization contribute to tolerance?
Answer: Desensitization causes ion channels to become less responsive, meaning the same amount of the drug has less effect on the neuron.
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3. What is downregulation and how does it affect drug tolerance?
Answer: Downregulation is the reduction in the number of receptors on the neuron, which decreases the cell’s response to the drug.
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4. What are common withdrawal symptoms for alcohol?
Answer: Symptoms can include anxiety, hyper-excitability, and, in severe cases, seizures or death due to an imbalance between GABA and glutamate.
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5. How does cocaine withdrawal affect dopamine activity?
Answer: Cocaine withdrawal is marked by decreased dopamine activity, leading to symptoms like depression and loss of motivation.
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6. What is the role of dopamine in stimulant withdrawal (e.g., cocaine or methamphetamine)?
Answer: Stimulant withdrawal results in reduced dopamine activity, which contributes to symptoms like depression and lack of motivation.
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7. How does the endocannabinoid system relate to cannabis withdrawal?
Answer: Chronic cannabis use leads to receptor desensitization, and withdrawal results in symptoms like anxiety, anger, and sleep disturbances due to an imbalance in the endocannabinoid system.
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8. What is the primary effect of nicotine in the brain and how does withdrawal affect cognition?
Answer: Nicotine enhances acetylcholine and dopamine, leading to cognitive enhancement. Withdrawal from nicotine is associated with cognitive deficits, including impaired attention and memory.
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1. Scenario: A person who has been drinking alcohol heavily for years suddenly stops drinking. After a few hours, they start to feel agitated, experience tremors, and their blood pressure increases. Why is this happening, and how is it related to their brain’s neurotransmitter system?
Answer: The symptoms are likely due to alcohol withdrawal. Chronic alcohol use results in a decrease in GABA function and increased glutamate activity. When alcohol is suddenly stopped, the brain becomes over-excited (due to less GABA inhibition and more glutamate excitation), leading to symptoms like agitation and high blood pressure.
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2. Scenario: A person has been using methamphetamine daily for several months. After stopping, they experience extreme fatigue and loss of motivation. What neurobiological change is likely occurring, and how does this affect their behavior?
Answer: Methamphetamine withdrawal leads to decreased dopamine activity in the brain. This results in symptoms like fatigue, depression, and a loss of motivation, as dopamine is crucial for reward and motivation pathways in the brain.
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3. Scenario: A long-term cannabis user decides to quit. After a week of abstinence, they begin feeling anxious and have trouble sleeping. What could be the cause of these symptoms, and how does it relate to their endocannabinoid system?
Answer: The withdrawal symptoms of anxiety and sleep disturbances are likely due to the disruption of the endocannabinoid system, which regulates mood and sleep. Chronic use of cannabis leads to receptor desensitization, and stopping suddenly causes withdrawal symptoms as the system struggles to maintain balance.
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4. Scenario: A smoker is trying to quit nicotine and experiences increased anxiety and trouble focusing. What neurobiological processes are responsible for these symptoms, and why do they occur during withdrawal?
Answer: Nicotine withdrawal reduces dopamine and acetylcholine activity in the brain, which impairs cognition and contributes to anxiety. These symptoms occur because nicotine acutely enhances dopamine release, and its absence causes a cognitive deficit and mood disturbances.
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What is the difference between conditioned withdrawal and conditioned tolerance?
Conditioned withdrawal occurs when environmental cues trigger a withdrawal-like state due to Pavlovian conditioning. Conditioned tolerance refers to the compensatory physiological responses that reduce the effects of a drug over time, which are also triggered by environmental cues.
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How does the concept of negative reinforcement explain addiction?
Addiction can be maintained through negative reinforcement when individuals use drugs to avoid or relieve withdrawal symptoms. Drug use thus becomes a way to negate the negative emotional state caused by withdrawal.
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What was the significance of Charles O'Brien's 1977 study on conditioned withdrawal?
O’Brien’s study demonstrated that environmental cues associated with withdrawal could trigger withdrawal-like symptoms even without the drug, suggesting that conditioned withdrawal plays a role in relapse.
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What is the compensatory response hypothesis, and how does it relate to tolerance?
The compensatory response hypothesis, proposed by Siegel, suggests that the body’s compensatory (B) responses to drug use grow stronger with repeated exposure, resulting in increased tolerance and the need for higher doses to achieve the same effects.
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What role do drug-associated cues play in relapse according to the lecture?
Drug-associated cues (like familiar environments or people linked to past drug use) can trigger withdrawal-like symptoms, motivating addicts to use drugs again to restore homeostasis, leading to relapse.
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Scenario 1: An addict relapses after attending a party where they used to take drugs.
Question: Why might this environment have triggered a relapse despite the individual being sober for months?
Answer: The environment (the party) could have been a conditioned cue associated with drug use, triggering withdrawal-like symptoms. These symptoms would have motivated the addict to relapse to avoid the negative state, in line with the theory of conditioned withdrawal.
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Scenario 2: An addict survives an overdose when taking heroin in the same environment where they previously used it but overdoses when they try using heroin in a different location.
Question: How can the difference in location explain the overdose in the new environment?
Answer: In the familiar environment, conditioned compensatory responses are triggered, which counteract the effects of the heroin, preventing an overdose. In the new environment, these conditioned responses are absent, increasing the risk of overdose as the body doesn't anticipate the drug’s effects.
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Scenario 3: A person with a history of alcohol use disorder finds that they have a strong craving for alcohol when they pass their old pub, even though they haven't drunk for years.
Question: What psychological process explains their craving in this situation?
Answer: This craving can be explained by conditioned withdrawal and conditioned tolerance. The pub (environmental cue) is associated with past alcohol use and withdrawal, which elicits a physiological response, triggering cravings and potential relapse.
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