PSYC2061

Question 1

Core Topics in Developmental Psychology

Answer 1

Describing developmental change – Identifying how individuals grow and change over time.
Understanding mechanisms of developmental change – Examining genetic and environmental influences on development.

Question 2

Genetic Foundations

Answer 2

Chromosomes – Structures in cells containing genetic material.
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) – Carries genetic instructions.
Genes – Units of heredity that influence traits.
Zygote – A fertilized egg cell.
Alleles – Different versions of a gene.
Homozygous vs. Heterozygous – Homozygous means having two identical alleles, heterozygous means having different alleles.
Genotype vs. Phenotype – Genotype is genetic makeup; phenotype is the physical expression.

Question 3

Dominant vs. Recessive Genes

Answer 3

Dominant genes – Expressed even if only one copy is inherited (e.g., brown eyes).
Recessive genes – Expressed only when two copies are inherited (e.g., blue eyes).

Question 4

Genetic Disorders

Answer 4

Dominant gene disorders: Huntington’s disease (neurodegenerative, late onset).
Recessive gene disorders: Phenylketonuria (PKU) (metabolic disorder, cognitive effects).

Question 5

Genetic Abnormalities and Development

Answer 5

Down Syndrome – Extra chromosome 21, leading to intellectual and developmental delays.
Fragile X Syndrome – Mutation in the FMR1 gene, often linked to autism.

Question 6

Gene Expression and Environmental Influence

Answer 6

Genes need to be expressed to impact development.
Example: Sex determination
Turtles – Sex determined by temperature.
Humans – Sex determined by X/Y chromosomes.

Question 7

Disruptions to Sex Determination

Answer 7

Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS): XY individuals develop female characteristics due to insensitivity to male hormones.
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH): XX individuals exposed to high testosterone levels, leading to masculinized traits.

Question 9

What are chromosomes, and what role do they play in genetic inheritance?

Answer 9

Chromosomes are thread-like structures made of DNA and proteins, located in the nucleus of cells. They contain genes that carry genetic information from parents to offspring. Humans have 23 pairs (46 total), with one set inherited from each parent.

Question 10

How does DNA store genetic information?

Answer 10

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) stores genetic information in sequences of nucleotides (adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine). These sequences form genes, which provide instructions for making proteins, the building blocks of life.

Question 11

What is the difference between a genotype and a phenotype?

Answer 11

A genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism (e.g., BB, Bb, or bb for eye color). A phenotype is the observable traits or characteristics resulting from the genotype and environmental influences (e.g., having brown or blue eyes).

Question 12

How do dominant and recessive genes differ?

Answer 12

Dominant genes express their traits even if only one copy is inherited (e.g., brown eyes from a Bb genotype).
Recessive genes require two copies (homozygous state) to be expressed (e.g., blue eyes from a bb genotype).

Question 13

Explain the difference between homozygous and heterozygous alleles.

Answer 13

Homozygous means having two identical alleles for a trait (BB or bb).
Heterozygous means having two different alleles for a trait (Bb).

Question 14

Why does Huntington’s disease occur even if an individual has only one copy of the gene?

Answer 14

Huntington’s disease is caused by a dominant allele. If a person inherits one copy of the mutated gene (Hh or HH), they will develop the disease. This is because dominant genes do not require a second copy to be expressed.

Question 15

Why can PKU skip generations, while Huntington’s disease cannot?

Answer 15

PKU is caused by a recessive allele, meaning an individual must inherit two copies (one from each parent) to have the disorder. Carriers (heterozygous individuals) do not show symptoms but can pass the gene to their children. In contrast, Huntington’s disease is dominant and cannot be “hidden” in carriers—anyone with the gene will develop the disease.

Question 16

How does Fragile X Syndrome affect both males and females differently?

Answer 16

Fragile X is linked to the X chromosome. Males (XY) have only one X chromosome, so if it carries the mutation, they experience more severe symptoms. Females (XX) have a second normal X chromosome that can sometimes compensate, leading to milder or variable symptoms.

Question 17

What are some environmental factors that can influence gene expression?

Answer 17

Diet (e.g., PKU symptoms can be prevented with a low-phenylalanine diet).
Temperature (e.g., sex determination in reptiles).
Stress and lifestyle (e.g., epigenetic changes affecting mental health).
Toxins and chemicals (e.g., exposure to pollutants can trigger genetic mutations).

Question 18

How does temperature impact sex determination in turtles?

Answer 18

The sex of turtle embryos is determined by the incubation temperature

Question 20

What are the three main stages of prenatal development in order?

Answer 20

Answer: Germinal period, Embryonic period, Fetal period.

Question 21

At what stage does organogenesis occur?

Answer 21

Answer: During the Embryonic period (3rd to 8th week).

Question 22

What is the primary function of the ectoderm?

Answer 22

Answer: It forms the nervous system, skin, and hair.

Question 23

At what age is a fetus considered viable, and what does that mean?

Answer 23

Answer: Around 22-28 weeks; viability means the fetus has a chance of survival outside the womb, though medical support is needed.

Question 24

List three factors that influence the survival of a preterm infant.

Answer 24

Answer: Birth weight, gender, singleton vs. multiple birth, use of steroids before birth.

Question 25

Why do doctors give steroids to mothers at risk of preterm birth?

Answer 25

Answer: Steroids help the fetus’s lungs develop, increasing the chances of survival.

Question 26

Scenario: A baby is born at 24 weeks gestation. What are some factors that will influence its survival?

Answer 26

Answer: The baby’s birth weight, gender (girls tend to have higher survival rates), whether it is a singleton or part of a multiple birth (singletons have better survival rates), and whether the mother received steroids before birth.

Question 27

Scenario: A mother gives birth at 30 weeks. What are some interventions the baby might need in the NICU?

Answer 27

Answer: The baby may need oxygen support, temperature regulation (incubator), intravenous nutrition, and possibly help with breathing if the lungs are underdeveloped.

Question 28

Scenario: Two preterm infants are born at 23 weeks. One is a single female with steroid treatment, and the other is a male twin without steroids. Who has a higher chance of survival, and why?

Answer 28

Answer: The single female with steroids has a higher chance of survival (~80%) compared to the male twin without steroids (~20%) because she has a higher birth weight, is female (better lung development), and received steroid treatment.

Question 29

Scenario: A doctor is explaining to a mother why her baby, born at 25 weeks, needs to stay in the NICU. What might the doctor say?

Answer 29

Answer: "Your baby was born very early, so their lungs, brain, and digestive system are still developing. In the NICU, we provide oxygen, warmth, and nutrition to help them grow stronger. With proper care, their chances of survival and healthy development increase."

Question 30

What are the three main stages of prenatal development in order?

Answer 30

Answer: Germinal period, Embryonic period, Fetal period.

Question 31

During which week does the heart start beating?

Answer 31

Answer: Around week 4.

Question 32

What are the three layers of the embryo, and what do they develop into?

Answer 32

Ectoderm → Nervous system, skin, hair. Mesoderm → Muscles, bones, circulatory system. Endoderm → Digestive system, lungs, urinary tract, and organs.

Question 33

At what week does the fetus begin responding to sound?

Answer 33

Answer: Around week 25-26.

Question 34

What is the limit of viability, and when does it occur?

Answer 34

Answer: The limit of viability is the age at which a fetus has a 50% chance of survival outside the womb, typically between 22-24 weeks.

Question 35

Why is surfactant important for preterm infants?

Answer 35

Answer: Surfactant helps keep the lungs from collapsing and allows for proper breathing after birth. It starts being produced around week 24 and increases by week 34.

Question 36

At what week does the fetus turn head-down in preparation for birth?

Answer 36

Answer: Around week 35-36.

Question 37

What are two factors that influence the survival of a preterm baby?

Answer 37

Birth weight (heavier babies have a higher chance of survival). Steroid treatment before birth (helps lung development).

Question 38

A baby is born at 24 weeks gestation. The mother received steroid treatment, and the baby is a single female. What are the survival chances, and why?

Answer 38

The baby has a better survival rate (~60-80%) because: Steroids were given, helping lung development. Females have higher survival rates than males. Singleton births typically have better outcomes than twins. The baby will likely require NICU support for breathing, temperature regulation, and feeding.

Question 39

A baby is born at 30 weeks. The parents ask why the baby needs to stay in the NICU if they are “only 10 weeks early.” What would you explain to them?

Answer 39

Lungs are still immature and may need oxygen support. Temperature regulation is difficult, so the baby may need an incubator. Feeding ability is underdeveloped, so the baby may need tube feeding. Brain and nervous system are still developing, meaning movement and reflexes need time to strengthen.

Question 40

A couple expecting their baby at 20 weeks asks if their baby can hear them yet. How do you respond?

Answer 40

At 20 weeks, the baby is starting to hear but mainly hears muffled sounds from inside the womb. By 24-26 weeks, the baby can recognize voices, especially the mother’s voice. Encourage the parents to talk, sing, or read to the baby to help with bonding and early language exposure.

Question 41

A mother gives birth at 28 weeks and is worried about long-term complications. What risks should she be aware of?

Answer 41

Most babies born at 28 weeks survive with medical support, but there is a risk of: Respiratory problems (lungs are not fully mature). Feeding difficulties (digestive system still developing). Vision and hearing impairments (due to incomplete development). Developmental delays (some preterm babies take longer to reach milestones). However, with good NICU care and follow-ups, many preterm babies grow up healthy.

Question 42

A mother at 38 weeks asks if her baby is still developing. What do you tell her?

Answer 42

At 38 weeks, the baby is full-term and fully developed. The baby is still gaining weight, especially fat, to help regulate body temperature. The baby is practicing breathing, sucking, and swallowing to prepare for life outside the womb. Unlike a preterm baby, a 38-week-old baby is ready for birth with fully developed organs.

Question 43

Which of the following groups are at an increased risk of giving birth preterm? A. Mothers having their second child B. Mothers in their 20s and 30s C. Indigenous mothers D. Mothers who conceive via IVF

Answer 43

C. Indigenous mothers ✅ D. Mothers who conceive via IVF ✅

Question 44

What did DeCasper & Spence’s (1986) "Cat in the Hat" study demonstrate? A. Newborns prefer loud sounds B. Fetuses can learn and remember sounds from the womb C. Infants are unable to distinguish voices D. Newborns do not recognize their mother's voice

Answer 44

B. Fetuses can learn and remember sounds from the womb ✅

Question 45

Which sense is most developed at birth? A. Vision B. Taste C. Olfaction D. Hearing

Answer 45

C. Olfaction ✅

Question 46

By what age do infants typically lose the ability to discriminate monkey faces (Pascalis et al., 2002)? A. 3 months B. 9 months C. 12 months D. 18 months

Answer 46

B. 9 months ✅

Question 47

In Werker & Tees' (1984) study on speech perception, at what age do infants lose the ability to discriminate non-native phonemes? A. 10-12 months B. 6 months C. 3 months D. 18 months

Answer 47

A. 10-12 months ✅

Question 48

What is perceptual narrowing?

Answer 48

Answer: Perceptual narrowing is the process by which infants lose the ability to perceive distinctions that are not relevant to their environment. This occurs in domains such as face recognition, speech perception, and intersensory perception.

Question 49

Why do infants prefer faces over other stimuli?

Answer 49

Answer: Infants prefer faces because they are biologically programmed to seek social interactions. Faces provide important cues for communication and survival.

Question 50

What was the main finding of the Other-Race Effect studies?

Answer 50

Answer: Infants gradually lose the ability to distinguish faces from unfamiliar racial groups unless they are exposed to multiple racial groups from an early age.

Question 51

How does intersensory perception change in infants raised in bilingual households?

Answer 51

Answer: Bilingual infants retain the ability to visually discriminate between languages for a longer period (up to at least 8 months), while monolingual infants lose this ability by 6 months.

Question 52

What evidence suggests that fetuses can hear in the womb?

Answer 52

Studies show that newborns recognize and prefer their mother’s voice, and research like the Cat in the Hat study (DeCasper & Spence, 1986) demonstrates that fetuses can learn and remember sounds heard before birth.

Question 53

How do newborns show a preference for their mother’s voice?

Answer 53

Newborns alter their sucking patterns when hearing their mother’s voice, indicating recognition and preference.

Question 54

What did the Cat in the Hat study (DeCasper & Spence, 1986) demonstrate about prenatal learning?

Answer 54

Infants who heard their mother read The Cat in the Hat during pregnancy showed a preference for hearing it after birth, suggesting memory and learning in the womb.

Question 55

How do newborns demonstrate a preference for their mother’s breast milk through olfaction?

Answer 55

Newborns orient toward the scent of their mother’s breast milk over unfamiliar milk, showing early olfactory recognition.

Question 56

What was the key finding of the carrot juice study (Mennella et al., 2001) regarding taste development?

Answer 56

Infants whose mothers consumed carrot juice during pregnancy or breastfeeding showed a greater preference for carrot-flavored cereal, suggesting early flavor learning.

Question 57

How does touch contribute to bonding between infants and caregivers?

Answer 57

Touch, such as skin-to-skin contact and infant massage, helps regulate stress, promotes attachment, and improves development, especially in preterm infants.

Question 58

How does an infant’s vision develop in the first year of life?

Answer 58

Newborns have poor visual acuity (~6/120), but it improves rapidly, reaching adult-like levels (~6/6) by 12 months.

Question 59

What is perceptual narrowing, and why does it occur?

Answer 59

Perceptual narrowing is when infants lose the ability to distinguish between stimuli they are not frequently exposed to, helping them specialize in their environment.

Question 60

What does the Other-Species Effect (Pascalis et al., 2002) tell us about face perception in infants?

Answer 60

At 6 months, infants can distinguish both human and monkey faces, but by 9 months, they lose the ability to differentiate monkey faces unless exposed to them regularly.

Question 61

How does the Other-Race Effect impact an infant’s ability to recognize faces from different racial groups?

Answer 61

Infants initially discriminate faces of all racial groups, but by 9 months, they are better at distinguishing faces from their own racial group and worse at others.

Question 62

What is the Conditioned Head Turn procedure, and how is it used to study speech perception?

Answer 62

It trains infants to turn their heads when they detect a change in sound, helping researchers determine which phonemes they can distinguish.

Question 63

What were the main findings of Werker & Tees (1984) regarding infants' ability to discriminate phonemes from different languages?

Answer 63

At 6 months, English-learning infants could distinguish non-native (e.g., Hindi) phonemes, but by 10-12 months, they lost this ability unless exposed to the language.

Question 64

How does growing up in a bilingual household affect an infant’s ability to distinguish languages visually?

Answer 64

Bilingual infants retain the ability to visually discriminate between different languages for longer than monolingual infants.

Question 65

How does intersensory perception change as infants gain experience with their native language?

Answer 65

Initially, infants can distinguish languages visually, but monolingual infants lose this ability around 6-8 months, while bilingual infants retain it longer.

Question 66

What is the significance of the habituation/dishabituation procedure in studying perceptual development?

Answer 66

It helps researchers determine whether infants perceive differences between stimuli by measuring changes in attention when a new stimulus is introduced.

Question 67

Question: Emma is a 7-month-old baby growing up in a Spanish-speaking household. If she participates in a study testing her ability to distinguish Hindi phonemes, what would the expected result be?

Answer 67

Answer: At 7 months, Emma might still be able to distinguish Hindi phonemes, but by 10-12 months, she will likely lose this ability due to perceptual narrowing.

Question 68

Question: Leo is a 9-month-old infant who has only been exposed to Caucasian faces. Researchers test his ability to differentiate between two East Asian faces. What is the likely result?

Answer 68

Answer: Leo will likely struggle to differentiate between the East Asian faces because, by 9 months, perceptual narrowing has led him to specialize in distinguishing faces from his own racial group.

Question 69

Question: Sophia is an 8-month-old baby growing up in a bilingual English-French household. Researchers test whether she can visually distinguish between someone speaking English and someone speaking Spanish. What would the results likely show?

Answer 69

Answer: Because she is growing up bilingual, Sophia would likely still be able to visually distinguish between English and Spanish, whereas a monolingual infant would not.

Question 70

What is the visual paired-comparison task, and how does it assess memory?

Answer 70

It presents infants with a familiar and a novel stimulus. If they prefer looking at the novel stimulus, it suggests they remember the familiar one.

Question 71

How does operant conditioning help study infant memory?

Answer 71

It shows that infants learn and remember contingencies between their behavior and reinforcement (e.g., kicking a mobile to make it move).

Question 72

What are the key differences between encoding, retention, and retrieval?

Answer 72

Encoding: Learning new information. Retention: Storing information over time. Retrieval: Accessing stored information when needed.

Question 73

Why do infants forget tasks rapidly, and how can memory be reactivated?

Answer 73

Forgetting happens due to retrieval failure rather than memory loss. Reactivation (e.g., seeing a moving mobile again) can restore access to the memory.

Question 74

How does retrieval in infants depend on context?

Answer 74

Infants may fail to retrieve memories if cues during testing differ from those during learning (e.g., a different mobile color).

Question 75

A baby kicks 10 times at baseline, 20 times at the immediate test, and 20 times at the delayed test. What do the BR and RR tell us?

Answer 75

BR = 20/10 = 2 → The baby learned the contingency. RR = 20/20 = 1 → The baby retained the memory perfectly.

Question 76

A baby kicks 5 times at baseline, 20 times at the immediate test, and 5 times at the delayed test. What does this indicate?

Answer 76

BR = 20/5 = 4 → The baby learned the contingency well. RR = 5/20 = 0.25 → Significant forgetting occurred.

Question 77

Question: A researcher wants to test whether 6-month-old infants can remember an object after a 2-week delay. They show infants a unique toy and test their recognition using a visual paired-comparison task. The results show that infants look equally at the novel and familiar toys. What does this suggest?

Answer 77

Answer: The infants likely forgot the original toy because their looking time is equal, indicating no novelty preference. This suggests that the retention interval (2 weeks) may be too long for their memory capacity.

Question 78

Question: An infant is trained on a mobile conjugate reinforcement task with a yellow mobile. When tested with a green mobile, they do not kick. Why?

Answer 78

Answer: Memory retrieval in infants is highly context-dependent. Since the test conditions do not match the original learning conditions, the baby does not recognize the contingency.

Question 79

Question: A 3-month-old forgets a mobile task after 1 week. The researcher briefly exposes the baby to the moving mobile before retesting. The baby now kicks again. What does this tell us?

Answer 79

Answer: The memory was still present but was inaccessible until reactivated. This supports the idea that forgetting in infancy is often due to retrieval failure rather than memory loss.

Question 80

What is the visual paired-comparison task, and how does it assess memory?

Answer 80

It presents infants with a familiar and a novel stimulus. If they prefer looking at the novel stimulus, it suggests they remember the familiar one.

Question 81

How does operant conditioning help study infant memory?

Answer 81

It shows that infants learn and remember contingencies between their behavior and reinforcement (e.g., kicking a mobile to make it move).

Question 82

At what age do infants pass the rouge test?

Answer 82

→ 18-24 months.

Question 83

What are two key differences between ability and effort praise?

Answer 83

Ability praise focuses on innate talent → leads to fixed mindset. Effort praise focuses on hard work → leads to growth mindset.

Question 84

Why does self-esteem decline in adolescence, especially for girls?

Answer 84

Increased sensitivity to others' opinions. Authoritarian parenting. Relationships with the opposite sex.

Question 85

What are two potential negative effects of praising ability?

Answer 85

Decreased persistence after failure. Increased likelihood of misrepresenting performance (cheating).

Question 86

How does process praise in early childhood affect motivation later on?

Answer 86

Leads to a growth mindset, where children see intelligence as malleable.

Question 87

What factors influence whether a growth mindset intervention is successful?

Answer 87

Peer norms (supportive environments help). School achievement levels (more effective in low-achieving schools).

Question 88

A teacher wants to encourage a growth mindset. Which of the following statements should they use? a) "You’re so talented at math!" b) "You worked really hard on that problem!" c) "You’re a natural at sports!"

Answer 88

Answer: (b) "You worked really hard on that problem!" → Effort-focused praise.

Question 89

Which of the following children is most likely to persist after failure? a) A child praised for their intelligence. b) A child who receives no praise. c) A child praised for their effort.

Answer 89

Answer: (c) A child praised for their effort.

Question 90

Which child is likely to misrepresent their performance after failure? a) One praised for effort. b) One praised for ability. c) One who received no praise.

Answer 90

Answer: (b) One praised for ability.

Question 91

Situation: You are at the playground with your 14-month-old nephew. He suddenly points to a dog and looks at you while saying, “Doggy!” Question: What social-cognitive skill is he demonstrating?

Answer 91

Answer: Joint attention – sharing interest in an object by pointing and looking at an adult.

Question 92

Situation: A child looks in a mirror and touches a red mark on their forehead after seeing their reflection. Question: How old is the child likely to be?

Answer 92

Answer: 18-24 months, since they have passed the rouge test and recognize themselves.

Question 93

Situation: A teacher praises two students: Student A: "You’re so smart at reading!" Student B: "You worked really hard on that book!" Question: Which student is more likely to take on difficult reading challenges in the future?

Answer 93

Answer: Student B (effort praise) because they associate success with hard work rather than innate ability.

Question 94

Situation: A 16-year-old girl’s self-esteem has dropped. She worries a lot about what her friends think and feels like her parents are too strict. Question: What factors might be contributing to her low self-esteem?

Answer 94

Answer: Peer opinions (valuing what others think). Authoritarian parenting (strict rules, little warmth). Adolescence-related self-esteem drop, especially in girls.

Question 95

Situation: A school implements a growth mindset program, teaching students that intelligence is malleable. It works well for low-achieving students, but not as well for high-achieving students. Question: Why might this be the case?

Answer 95

Answer: Low-achieving students benefit more because they are less confident in their abilities and are more open to improvement. High-achieving students may already have positive self-perceptions and see less need for change.