PSY251 exam Flashcards
(116 cards)
1
Q
Average size of human brain:
A
Between 1 and 2 kilos.
2
Q
How many neurons in the human brain:
A
86 billion
3
Q
What percentage of the bodies energy does the brain use:
A
20-25%
4
Q
Why do human brains have so many neurons compared to the brain of other animals:
A
Because we were able to cook food and gain more calories.
5
Q
Main functions of the brain:
A
The brain’s primary function is produce behaviour and movement.
It does this by receiving information from the outside world to construct a subjective reality, which in turn produces behaviour (movement) and thought.
One is responsible for the other, which is responsible for the other in a never ending cycle.
6
Q
Patterns (Behaviour):
A
Behaviour consists of patterns in time, patterns can be movements, vocalisations, or changes in appearance. Changes in the brains electric and biochemical activity that are associated with thinking is a behaviour that forms patterns in time.
7
Q
Brain structures involved in Conscious vs unconscious behaviours:
A
Forebrain: made up of the Cerebrum and has left and right hemisphere. Prominent in mammals and birds, responsible for most conscious behaviours.
Brainstem: Source of behaviour in simpler animals, responsible for most of our unconscious behaviours.
8
Q
Persistent vegetative state:
A
Condition in which a person is alive but unaware, unable to communicate or to function independently at even the most basic level.
9
Q
Minimally conscious state:
A
Condition in which a person can display some rudimentary behaviors, such as smiling or uttering a few words, but is otherwise not conscious.
10
Q
Locked in syndrome:
A
Condition in which a patient is aware and awake but cannot move or communicate verbally because of complete paralysis of nearly all voluntary muscles except the eyes.
11
Q
Learnt vs inherited behaviours:
A
The brain comes at birth prepared to produce behaviour but also prepared to change.
We have inherited ways of responding, like sucking response in newborn infants, but later food is strongly influence by learning and culture.
Most behaviours are a mix of inherited and learned actions.
Neural plasticity allows us to learn.
12
Q
Dualism (Perspective on brain and behaviour):
A
Both a non-material mind and the material body contribute to behaviour. The non-material mind directs rational behaviour and then the body and the brain direct everything else. The mind instructed the Pineal gland to direct fluids from the ventricles to expand muscles which in turn moves the body.
Problems with Dualism
Pineal gland: Influences biological rhythms, not behavioural control.
Fluid is not pumped from ventricles for movement, movement is controlled by motor cortices.
Mind-body problem: eg. mind and body are actually one.
13
Q
Materialism (Perspective on brain and behaviour):
A
Behaviour can be explained as a function of the nervous system (Material) without talking about a mind (immaterial) (The idea of the mind is irrelevant when behaviour can be explained by the central nervous system)
14
Q
Mentalism (Perspective on brain and behaviour):
A
The non-material mind: The Psyche is independent of the body, this produces behaviour. Brain exists to cool the body
15
Q
Intelligence:
A
Intelligence can vary amongst humans.
Brain size does not determine how intelligent someone is.
Intelligence is difficult to measure as there are many types of intelligence.
16
Q
Brain size:
A
It is brain size in relation to body size that determines intelligence in the animal kingdom.
Humans have the largest brain in comparison to body size in the animal kingdom.
17
Q
Occipital lobe (Location and function).
A
Posterior part of the brain. responsible mostly for visual processing including colour, form, and movement.
18
Q
Parietal lobe (Location and function)..
A
Posterior to the frontal lobe and anterior to the occipital lobe. Somatosensory area (Sense of touch), sensory integration, where a person is in relation to the natural environment, and where most body parts are.
19
Q
Temporal lobe (Location and function)
A
Ventral part of the brain (Bottom), below frontal and parietal lobes. The bottom half is the continuation of the occipital visual system, the top half is mostly for auditory perception and the processing of language. Facial recognition and emotional processing. Medial part of the temporal lobe is the hippocampi which are important for memory formation.
20
Q
Frontal lobe (Location and function).
A
Anterior part of the brain Involved in executive functions, planning, organising, initiating movement, and self monitoring, also involved in emotional control and higher reasoning.
21
Q
Prefrontal cortex (Location and function).
A
Forward part of the frontal lobe.
Executive function that plans out behaviour and makes decisions on what to do, broad goals.
Plays a part in influencing emotions though ANS and ENS
Selecting appropriate behaviours though context and memory.
Responsible for the conscious awareness of emotional states produced by the rest of the limbic system, especially the amygdala.
Damage to prefrontal cortex have faulty decision making processes.
22
Q
Cerebellum (Location and function).
A
Brain stem structure.
Plays a major part in fine tune accuracy and timing of movement.
Plays a small role in cognitive function.
Animals that are fast in movement and require fine movements such as birds and cats have large cerebellum compared to brain size.
23
Q
Corpus callosum (Location and function)
A
200 million nerve fibres that join the two hemispheres and allow them communicate.
24
Q
What is the brain stem responsible for and what are it’s three parts?
A
Receives afferent and send efferent down though spinal cord. Responsible for most life sustaining behaviour.
Hind brain
Mid brain
Diencephalon
25
Hind brain; 4 parts and their locations:
Pons: Connects the Cerebellum to the rest of the brain, controls important movements of the body.
Medulla: Controls vital functions of heart rate and breathing. Sits at very top of spinal column.
Reticular formation: Runs posterior to the Pons and Medulla. Reticular formation is a netlike structure made up of both neurons (Grey matter) and nerve fibre (white matter). Stimulates the forebrain - regulation of sleep - wake behaviours and behavioural arousal.
Cerebellum: Plays a major part in fine tune accuracy and timing of movement. Plays a small role in cognitive function. Animals that are fast in movement and require fine movements such as birds and cats have large cerebellum compared to brain size.
26
Two parts of Midbrain and their functions.
Tectum: Roof of mid-brain. Sensory processing (Visual and auditory). Produces orienting movements like turning your head to see source of sound.
Tegmentum: Limb movement, eye movement, initiating movement. Home of the substantia nigra where the destruction of these cells leads to Parkinson’s.
27
Thalamus:
Part of the brain stems (Diencephalon)
Organiser and integrator of sensory information.
Gateway for channelling sensory information to the cortex, visual, auditory, and smell.
Primary role in is sensory processing.
Also engaged in some motor processing.
28
Hypothalamus.
Part of the brain stems (Diencephalon)
Hormone function through connection to the pituitary gland.
Has a part in almost every part of behaviour, feeding, sexual behaviour, sleeping, temp regulation, movement, and emotional behaviour.
Responsible for most life sustaining, unconscious behaviour.
29
Basal ganglia.
Made up of the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus.
Primarily involved in movement, eg using the appropriate force to hold an object.
Sends information back and forth from spinal column to the brain to manage smooth fluid movement.
30
Somatosensory cortex:
IN the postcentral gyrus, posterior to the central sulcus.
Responsible for processing sensory information.
31
Premotor cortex: Located in frontal lobe.
Organises movement sequences.
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Motor cortex: Located in frontal lobe.
Produces specific movements.
33
Limbic system.
Regulates emotions and behaviours that store and require memory, works as internal GPS. Made up of the AMYGDALA, HIPPOCAMPUS, and CINGULATE CORTEX.
Regulates emotional and sexual behaviours, memory, and spatial navigation.
34
Amygdala.
Organises behavioural, autonomic & hormonal responses to a variety of situations, including those that produce fear, anger, or disgust.
Also involved in the effects of odours and pheromones on sexual and maternal behaviour.
35
Amygdala Lesions/Animals
Passivity and emotionally unresponsiveness (like “Psychic blindness”).
For example, in research with monkeys and cats, those with damage to their amygdalas would attempt to eat burning matches, their own feces, and other objects that normally would elicit fear or disgust. Monkeys who had responded to snakes with terror before the lesioning of their amygdalas would, after the lesioning, show no fear of the same snakes. Some monkeys even placed the snakes inside their mouths!
Can lead to furious attacks on others (may depend on what parts of the amygdala are destroyed/left intact)
Changes in sexual behavior Amygdala Lesions/Animals
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Broca’s area.
Located in frontal lobe. Involved in complex speech. Interacts with the flow of sensory information from the temporal lobe. Devises plan for speaking and passes it onto the motor cortex.
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Medial
Towards middle
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Lateral
Toward the outside
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Dorsal
Towards top.
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Ventral:
Towards bottom
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Anterior
Towards front
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Posterior
Towards back
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Nervous system organisation
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CNS:
Spinal cord, brainstem, and forebrain.
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PNS
(Peripheral nervous system) made up of the neurons outside of the brain and spinal cord and takes in the somatic, autonomic, and enteric nervous systems.
46
ANS (two a parts and their functions)
The autonomic nervous system pathways exert opposite effects.
Sympathetic: Arouses the body to action though the fight or flight response by increasing heart rate and blood pressure.
Parasympathetic: Prepares the body for rest and digest by reversing the alarm response or stimulating digestion.
47
SNS
Sensory nerves (Afferent) (Posterior in spinal column)
Motor nerves (Efferent) (Anterior in spinal column)
48
Enteric nervous system
Mesh of neurons embedded in the lining of the gut, running from the esophagus through the colon; controls the gut. Communicates with the CNS though the ANS, but mostly works alone.
49
Ependymal cell.
Produce and excrete cerebrospinal fluid.
Sodium chloride
50
Astrocyte cell.
Works as a scaffold to hold neurons in place by attaching to blood vessels and neurons.
Connections to blood vessels also serve as a conduit to feed certain nutrients to the neurons.
Secrete a chemical to keep neurons healthy.
Where these connections to the blood vessels occur, the astrocytes communicate to the cells that make up the vessels to close up tightly so as not to allow any toxins into the brain, known as the blood brain barrier.
Communicate from neurons to blood vessels when more nutrients is required to facilitate dilation of blood vessels.
Lastly the astrocyte helps to repair neurons when they are damaged.
51
Microglia.
A glial cell. Make up 20% of all glial cells.
Identify and attack foreign tissue in the nervous system.
Because immune cells cannot enter the brain because of the blood brain barrier, there needs to be another catalyst for getting rid of foreign matter, which is the microglia.
52
Oligodendroglia and Schwann cells
Myelin
Insulate neuronal axons improving conduction speed, and help to feed neuron nutrition.
Schwann cells myelinate (Insulate) in PNS and also help to repair nerve damage with the When the new axon sprouts it follows the path created by the Schwann cells
Oligodendroglia myelinates cells in the CNS
53
Key components of a neurons
Dendritic spines
Soma
Axon
Collaterals
Axon Terminal
Myelin sheath
54
Blood-brain barrier
A barrier that is made from the closing up of the cells that make up blood vessels in the brain to protect from toxins.
Thought to occur because of the astrocyte cells that enclose the blood vessels in the communicate with the blood vessel cells.
Some drugs do carry the right signatures to get through some of the transporter proteins if they mimic that particular substances, other drugs are small enough to pass though places where glucose or oxygen can get though.
55
Cell membrane
Phospholipid bilayer. Remember that protein channels are the things like the ligand activated gates.
56
Resting potential
The point that the neuron is ready to be fired and has achieved electrochemical equilibrium though the use of selective membrane permeability.
Normally around -70mV
More K+ Inside the cell than outside (about 20 times). Na+ voltage-gated channels are closed.
57
Action potentials
Neurotransmitters released from the preceding neuron axon terminals, via the terminal buttons, and bond to the ligand-gated channels (usually on the dendrites) to open them. For the action potential to generate there needs to be enough of these open to bring the membrane potential up to -55mV, this is the threshold. This will happen if enough stimulation from the presynaptic terminal comes though (Normally NT) It does this by allowing in enough Na+ through the ligand gated channels which increases the membrane potential. known as graded potential. Sometimes not enough ligand-gated channels are stimulated, in this case you get a small increase in the membrane potential but not enough to cross the threshold, known as graded potential. If enough stimulus to the membrane potential occurs through the influx of Na+, the Na+ voltage-gated channels will open (happens at about -55 mV). Once the gated channels are opened to the sodium ions, they rush into the cell and bring about a positive charge to the intracellular part of the cell and in turn the membrane potential becomes more positive (known as depolarisation when the membrane potential crosses the 0 mV line). Once the membrane potential becomes positive (known as Overshoot) and reaches it's peak, the voltage gated Na+ channels become inactivated and will not allow in anymore Na+. They become inactivated through a second gate on the Na+ voltage-gated channels, this second gate stops another action potential happening too quickly, and also ensures that the nerve impulse does not travel backwards. The sodium/potassium pumps continue to transfer out the sodium ions in exchange for the potassium ions to ready the action potential to fire again. Nerve impulses are generated along the cell body and down in axon in a cascading manner, as the threshold is reached in one area and Na+ voltage-gated channels open, it raises the membrane potential further along the dendrite/cell body/axon which in turn brings that part up to threshold and opens the Na+ voltage gated channels and so and so forth.
58
Saltatory conduction
Fast propagation of an action potential at successive nodes of Ranvier; saltatory means “leaping.”
59
Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
Normally found on the dendritic tree or spine
Opening transmitter gated ions channels ( Na+) in postsynaptic membrane
Both an electrical and a concentration gradient driving Na+ into the cell;
The postsynaptic membrane will become depolarized (EPSP)
60
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
Normally found on the cell body (If you think about it, the reason for this is because if you wanted to stop the action potential with IPSP, then you would need to stop it further down the chain reaction, so the cell body makes sense)
A impulse arriving in the presynaptic terminal causes the release of neurotransmitter;
The molecular bind and active receptors on the postsynaptic membrane open CI- or, sometimes K+ channels; More CI- enters, K+ outer the cell, producing a hyperpolarization in the postsynaptic membrane.
It inhibits action potentials by increasing the stimulus required to move the membrane potential to the action potential threshold.
61
Role of sodium-potassium pump
Pump sodium out of the cell, 3 sodium ions exported and two potassium ions are imported. Cost one ATP molecule.
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Measure of voltage across cell membrane
Known as membrane potential.
Outside of the cell is considered 0, so whatever the difference in charge between outside and inside is what the membrane potential is.
Usually sits at -70mV at resting potential.
63
Sequence of chemical events at the synapse. (5)
Precursor transport
The neurotransmitter is synthesized somewhere inside the neuron.
It is packaged and stored within vesicles at the axon terminal.
It is transported to the presynaptic membrane and released into the cleft in response to an action potential in a process of exocytosis.
It binds to and activates receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.
It is degraded or removed, so it will not continue to interact with a receptor and work indefinitely.
64
Two types of summation and how they work.
Summation is the concept of the occurrence of multiple stimulation coming from the same place (spatial summation) and at the same time (temporal summation). When more stimulus occurs together in time and space it creates a bigger wave and will bring the membrane potential closer to threshold, the more stimulus occurring together, the more likely threshold will be met.
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Drug antagonist
Drug that opposes or inhibits effects of particular neurotransmitter on postsynaptic cell
Block receptors
Block release from vesicle
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Drug agonist
Drug that facilitates effects of particular neurotransmitter on postsynaptic cell
Can increase production of neurotransmitter.
Promotion of release from vesicle.
Stimulation of the receptor.
Reduction in the enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitter.
Reuptake transporter blocked
67
Sensitisation to drugs:
Opposite to tolerance, an increased responsiveness to successive equal doses.
Does not work in a familiar environment, before becoming addicted or dependent on a drug need to be sensitised by numerous experiences with the drug away from home environment.
Life experience can work in the same way and prime the nervous system for addiction.
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Withdrawal:
Physical and psychological behaviour displayed by a user when drug use ends.
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Tolerance:
Decrease in response to drug over time.
Effective does will need to go up over time as tolerance builds.
Can be learned tolerance – learn to cope with being drunk
Metabolic tolerance – produce more enzymes to break down the alcohol.
Cellular tolerance – Brain cells adjust to minimise effects of alcohol
70
Mesolimbic (Dopaminergic) pathways:
Reward system
Starts ventral tegmental area (VTA), through to nucleus accumbens, hippocampus, basal ganglia, and frontal cortex. Also flow to cerebellum.
Thought to be the reward system
Most affected by addictive drugs and behavioural addictions.
Increased DA may be related to schizophrenia
Decrease in DA associated with attention deficits.
71
The Incentive-Sensitization Theory:
Dopamine release is the neural correlate of wanting and the repetition of behaviour.
Cues trigger a wanting.
Cue itself pulls attention.
Pavlovian (classical conditioning) where paired stimulus increases wanting.
Different states can increase cue power. Withdrawal is one.
72
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
Summed graded potentials.
An EEG recorded from the cortex displays an array of patterns, some rhythmical. Alpha rhythms
An EEG recorded from the cortex displays an array of patterns, some rhythmical.
Records electrical information of the brain, used to record sleep stages and excessive neuronal activity associated with seizures.
It is possible to record from outside the skull.
PYRAMIDAL cells span layers of the cortex and have parallel cell bodies. Their combined extracellular field is small but measurable at the scalp.
73
MEG (Magnetoencephalography) x4
Records the magnetic field created by the electrical currents created by neurons.
More precise than EEG.
High cost in comparison to EEG and ERP
Can locate the source of an epileptic discharge
74
TMS (Transcranial magnetic stimulation)
Magnet that can depolarise neurons.
Magnetic field that can depolarises neurons propagating action potentials.
Used to induce behaviour or to disrupt ongoing behaviour.
75
Single-cell recording
Intracellular recordings are is therefore confined to neurons grown in a dish or, for short periods (hours), to neurons in living brain slices.
Problem is intracellular recordings can kill the cell from inserting electrode into it.
Need to insert microelectrode into the cell.
76
Event-related potentials (ERPs)
Complex EEG waveform related in time to a specific event eg. Something happens, EEG spikes, this is the ERP.
Can be used with many electrodes, sometimes 200, to identify brain areas that respond to different stimuli.
Can be used to map the order in which different regions of the brain participate in a stimulus.
77
fMRI Functional magnetic resonance
Measures blood flow to the areas of the brain.
78
Primary motor cortex
Produces skilled movements such as those with the hands arms and mouth. Executes movements
79
Premotor cortex
Receives instructions from the prefrontal and then organises movement sequences. Coordinates different movements together eg. Two hands coordinating to achieve the same task. Does not execute the movements, just plans them out. Motor sequences – movement sequences pre-programmed into the brain and produced as a whole unit.
80
Spinal cord and its involvement in movements (e.g., voluntary vs involuntary movements, spinal reflex, etc)
Spinal column produces movement for people even when they have their spinal column severed. Can be seen in patients automatic leg movement when stimulated from walking when they do not have to hold up their own weight. Seen mostly from the medial interneurons.
Spinal reflexes
Somatosensory neurons send out collaterals to motor neurons, directly or through interneurons, to mediate spinal reflexes.
81
Unilateral damage to spinal column (In regard to somatosensory)
Loss of fine touch and pressure sensation of same side of cut. This is below damage.
Loss of nociception on opposite side of cut. This is below damage.
82
Motor pathways (e.g., corticospinal tract)
Axons from the corticospinal tract originate mainly in the motor cortex, but some also come from the pre-motor cortex and the sensory cortex. They travel through the brainstem where they send out collaterals to other nuclei and emerge on brainstem ventral surface on bumps called pyramids. Finger hand and arm movement cross to the opposite side, while trunk and shoulder movement continue on. Motor neurons carry all information to the muscles. Interneurons coordinate complex movements through their connection to other motor neurons.
Lateral corticospinal tract is crossed. Connects to motor neurons directly or through interneurons to control muscles of limbs and digits. Motor neurons carry all information to the muscles. Connects to the lateral interneurons and motor neurons.
Ventral (anterior) corticospinal tract is uncrossed. Connects with motor neurons directly or through interneurons to innervate the trunk (Midline of body) Motor neurons carry all information to the muscles. Connect to medial (middle) interneurons and motor neurons.
83
Movement disorders (e.g., Parkinson’s disease)
Parkinson’s is caused by the loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra, part of the basal ganglia. When these cells die there is not enough dopamine to transmit messages.
Parkinson’s disease has four major symptoms (although they aren’t necessarily all observed): tremors (generally of arms and hands), cog-wheel rigidity (a stiff, mechanical type of movement), akinesia (lack of movement) or bradykinesia (slowness of movement), and disturbances of posture.
Some back and forth here as too much dopamine is thought to cause schizophrenia, and too little Parkinson’s.
84
Treatment for Parkinsons
Normally L-dopa or some drug that increases levels of dopamine.
Deep brain stimulation (subthalamic brain stim)
Combination of drugs and DBS
Transcranial direct current (research sketchy)
Levodopa/carbidopa/entacapone
85
Three components of emotion
Physiological/Autonomic response (e.g., increased heart rate)
Hypothalamus and associated structures as well as ENS
Subjective feelings (e.g., fear)
Amygdala and parts of frontal lobes
Cognitions (e.g., thoughts about the experience)
Cerebral cortex
86
Neural control of emotion 3 theories.
Constructivist theories argue that the brain produces a cognitive response to autonomic states.
Appraisal theories define emotional episodes as processes rather than states. Emotions result from an evaluation of context, including somatic components, which lead to a subjective feeling.
Neuropsychological theories emphasize asymmetrical cerebral control of emotions. Eg. Right hemisphere plays a large part in emotion, like left does for language.
87
Where in the brain do emotions generate from
Emotions are not found in a single place in the brain but rather are distributed in limbic and frontal lobe structures, especially the amygdala and prefrontal cortex. Emotional disorders, such as depression and anxiety, are believed to result from dysfunction in these structures.
Limbic system (amygdala and hippocampus)
Hypothalamus
Prefrontal cortex
Cingulate cortex
88
Where in the brain does motivated behaviour generate from
Some connections do bypass the hypothalamus, so the thought is that motivated behaviour is primarily through the hypothalamus.
89
Regulatory behaviours.
Behaviours motivated to meet an animals survival needs.
Internal body temperature
Easting and drinking
Salt consumption
Waste elimination
90
James-Lange theory of emotion
A constructivist theory.
The idea that we first have a physiological response to stimuli, this response tells us we are afraid.
91
Synaptic homeostasis memory theory of sleep.
Theory that says
Sleep allows synapses to return to quiet state and so conserve energy
Synapses in this state are able to return to a plastic state that was lost through use and ready to be used again when awake.
Synapses that have been under heavy metabolic state due to use take longer to move to resting state, this allows them to undergo structural changes when other neurons around them are in a state of rest.
92
Circadian rhythm
Daily cycle including, pulse rate, blood pressure, alertness, metabolic rate, sexual drive, cognitive ability, and emotions.
Nearly every cell in our body produces a circadian rhythm.
Can be entrained and disrupted with zeitgebers. Eg. Light at night, jet lag etc.
93
Brain structure(s) underlying sleep
Reticular activating system (RAS) basal ganglia, median raphe are involved in waking
The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus is the primary circadian pacemaker, regulating sleep and wake cycles by receiving input from light-sensitive cells in the retina.
The pineal gland produces the hormone melatonin, which helps to regulate sleep-wake cycles.
The thalamus and brainstem play a role in maintaining sleep and regulating transitions between different stages of sleep, including slow-wave sleep (stage 3 of non-rapid eye movement or NREM) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep.
The prefrontal cortex is involved in maintaining wakefulness and attention during the day and is inhibited during sleep.
94
NREM
Non-Rapid Eye Movement or NREM sleep) dominates the early sleep periods
NREM level 3 sleep remembering declarative facts and events.
Many activities occur (e.g., decrease in body temperature, increase in growth hormone release)
Dreaming occurs in N-sleep but are not as vivid as in R-sleep.
Maintaining muscle posture during N-sleep
Talking and movement can happen here.
Sleep may occur in a variety of postures, including standing up, sitting (as might occur in a lecture), or in any of several reclining positions.
95
REM
(Rapid Eye Movement REM sleep) dominates later sleep.
REM is important for procedural memory, responsible for learning and executing motor skills.
Atonia - No tone; a condition of complete muscle inactivity produced as sleep regions of the brainstem inhibit motor neurons
Mechanisms that regulate body temperature decrease in activity.
Body temperature moves toward room temperature.
Vivid dreams
96
Seasonal affective disorder
Form of depression
Low levels of sunlight do not entrain circadian rhythm, therefore circadian rhythm is disrupted.
Can also be caused by lack of vitamin d.
Melanopsin which is sensitive to blue light used for light treatment.
97
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
Increase in EPSP
Long-lasting increase in synaptic effectiveness after high-frequency stimulation.
Long term potentiation can be caused by structural changes at the presynaptic (greater release of neurotransmitters) and postsynaptic (More channels/protein gates) terminals.
NMDA receptors release magnesium ion after strong stimulation allowing influx of calcium, this creates the cascade that adds new protein to the post synaptic terminal.
98
Long-term depression (LTD)
Decrease in EPSP
Caused by low level stimulation that is not enough to fire an action potential
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Operant conditioning.
Reward or Punishment = Behaviour.
Train behaviour
Positive reinforcement = add something the is pleasant, a reward.
Negative reinforcement = to remove something unpleasant.
Stop behaviour
Positive punishment - Add a punishment eg. A fine for speeding.
Negative punishment - Remove something as a punishment eg. remove license.
Punishment can only work to stop behaviour, it does not work well for teaching.
100
Pavlovian (classical) conditioning.
Neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned response to create a conditioned response
101
Learning
Persistent or even permanent change in behaviour from experience.
102
Implicit memory.
Unconscious memory (passive learning)
Cannot explicitly retrieve the information
How a sentence works, or how adjectives are strung together. Think about Ping pong or bing bang bong. How to walk, anything you know without knowing it, grammar rules, conditioning, skills.
103
Explicit memory
Conscious memory. Eg. The things that you learn in class.
Short term
Limited capacity
Long term
Unlimited capacity
Encoding
Consolidation
Storage
Retrieval
104
Spatial memory
Hippocampus involved, animals that need to remember where their food is have bigger hippocampus (Think of taxi drivers of London)
105
Brain structures memory
Encoding (frontal lobe)
Consolidation (hippocampus)
Storage (distributed)
The basal ganglia and cerebellum are involved in procedural memory, which is responsible for learning and executing motor skills.
The amygdala is involved in the emotional valence of memories, influencing the strength and persistence of emotional memories.
106
Alzheimer’s disease (risk and protective factors)
Risk factors:
Presence of the Apoe4 gene
Below average IQ
Poor education
Traumatic brain injury
Protective factors
Presence of the Apoe2 gene
Higher IQ
Higher educational attainment
107
Alzheimer’s characteristics
Amyloid plaques in allocortex and neocortex.
Neurofibrillary tangles in allocortex and neocortex
Brain atrophy
Posterior hippocampus more affected that anterior hippocampus.
108
HPA axis
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. (slow stress)
When stressed activates the adrenal medulla to produce cortisol
Overactive HPA axis lead to an over secretion of cortisol which can then lead to depression
.
109
Schizophrenia
Characterised by excess dopamine
Treated with antipsychotics, normally a dopamine antagonist. (Impacts of dopamine antagonist is weight gain, motor disturbance, and impact to motivation though the mesolimbic dopamine system)
Genetic component
Also attributed to glutamate and GABA abnormalities.
110
Challenges to diagnosing psychiatric conditions
Most diagnostic information is reported by client and family members
Lack of objectivity in self-observation, or observation of a loved one
Selective noticing and reporting of symptoms
i.e., if someone thinks they have a memory problem, they may notice memory lapses that they typically don’t take notice and may minimise symptoms that does not fit with a memory-based condition
Lack of specificity in symptom descriptions
i.e., knowing that it is a “memory problem” is not enough
What kind of memory deficit underlies the problem?
Memory for Words? Places? Faces? Habits?
All involve different processes, different pathologies, and different brain systems
Likely require different intervention strategies
or could also be symptomatic of different conditions
Different members of a multidisciplinary team can view and interpret behavioural data differently
Their view/interpretation will inform:
Diagnostic questions they ask
Observations they make
Diagnostic tests they use
Behavioural and psychiatric disorders are complex and difficult to diagnose than organic disorders
Require subjective observations and interpretations
Depression/anxiety cannot be diagnosed with a blood test
111
Nociception
Perception of pain, temperature, or itch.
112
Proprioception
Body awareness, is the perception of body location and movement.
113
Wernicke’s area
Area of brain for speech comprehension.
114
Depolarisation vs repolarisation
Depolarization (Action potential) is caused when positively charged sodium ions rush into a neuron with the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels. Repolarization (After action potential) is caused by the closing of sodium ion channels and the opening of potassium ion channels
115
THE 7-STEP PROCESS FROM NEUROTRANSMITTER RELEASE TO POSTSYNAPTIC EXCITATION OR INHIBITION
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What is spinal fluid made from
Sodium chloride.
