PSY251 exam

Question 1

Average size of human brain:

Answer 1

Between 1 and 2 kilos.

Question 2

How many neurons in the human brain:

Answer 2

86 billion

Question 3

What percentage of the bodies energy does the brain use:

Answer 3

20-25%

Question 4

Why do human brains have so many neurons compared to the brain of other animals:

Answer 4

Because we were able to cook food and gain more calories.

Question 5

Main functions of the brain:

Answer 5

The brain’s primary function is produce behaviour and movement.

It does this by receiving information from the outside world to construct a subjective reality, which in turn produces behaviour (movement) and thought.

One is responsible for the other, which is responsible for the other in a never ending cycle.

Question 6

Patterns (Behaviour):

Answer 6

Behaviour consists of patterns in time, patterns can be movements, vocalisations, or changes in appearance. Changes in the brains electric and biochemical activity that are associated with thinking is a behaviour that forms patterns in time.

Question 7

Brain structures involved in Conscious vs unconscious behaviours:

Answer 7

Forebrain: made up of the Cerebrum and has left and right hemisphere. Prominent in mammals and birds, responsible for most conscious behaviours.

Brainstem: Source of behaviour in simpler animals, responsible for most of our unconscious behaviours.

Question 8

Persistent vegetative state:

Answer 8

Condition in which a person is alive but unaware, unable to communicate or to function independently at even the most basic level.

Question 9

Minimally conscious state:

Answer 9

Condition in which a person can display some rudimentary behaviors, such as smiling or uttering a few words, but is otherwise not conscious.

Question 10

Locked in syndrome:

Answer 10

Condition in which a patient is aware and awake but cannot move or communicate verbally because of complete paralysis of nearly all voluntary muscles except the eyes.

Question 11

Learnt vs inherited behaviours:

Answer 11

The brain comes at birth prepared to produce behaviour but also prepared to change.

We have inherited ways of responding, like sucking response in newborn infants, but later food is strongly influence by learning and culture.

Most behaviours are a mix of inherited and learned actions.

Neural plasticity allows us to learn.

Question 12

Dualism (Perspective on brain and behaviour):

Answer 12

Both a non-material mind and the material body contribute to behaviour. The non-material mind directs rational behaviour and then the body and the brain direct everything else. The mind instructed the Pineal gland to direct fluids from the ventricles to expand muscles which in turn moves the body.

Problems with Dualism
Pineal gland: Influences biological rhythms, not behavioural control.
Fluid is not pumped from ventricles for movement, movement is controlled by motor cortices.
Mind-body problem: eg. mind and body are actually one.

Question 13

Materialism (Perspective on brain and behaviour):

Answer 13

Behaviour can be explained as a function of the nervous system (Material) without talking about a mind (immaterial) (The idea of the mind is irrelevant when behaviour can be explained by the central nervous system)

Question 14

Mentalism (Perspective on brain and behaviour):

Answer 14

The non-material mind: The Psyche is independent of the body, this produces behaviour. Brain exists to cool the body

Question 15

Intelligence:

Answer 15

Intelligence can vary amongst humans.

Brain size does not determine how intelligent someone is.

Intelligence is difficult to measure as there are many types of intelligence.

Question 16

Brain size:

Answer 16

It is brain size in relation to body size that determines intelligence in the animal kingdom.

Humans have the largest brain in comparison to body size in the animal kingdom.

Question 17

Occipital lobe (Location and function).

Answer 17

Posterior part of the brain. responsible mostly for visual processing including colour, form, and movement.

Question 18

Parietal lobe (Location and function)..

Answer 18

Posterior to the frontal lobe and anterior to the occipital lobe. Somatosensory area (Sense of touch), sensory integration, where a person is in relation to the natural environment, and where most body parts are.

Question 19

Temporal lobe (Location and function)

Answer 19

Ventral part of the brain (Bottom), below frontal and parietal lobes. The bottom half is the continuation of the occipital visual system, the top half is mostly for auditory perception and the processing of language. Facial recognition and emotional processing. Medial part of the temporal lobe is the hippocampi which are important for memory formation.

Question 20

Frontal lobe (Location and function).

Answer 20

Anterior part of the brain Involved in executive functions, planning, organising, initiating movement, and self monitoring, also involved in emotional control and higher reasoning.

Question 21

Prefrontal cortex (Location and function).

Answer 21

Forward part of the frontal lobe.

Executive function that plans out behaviour and makes decisions on what to do, broad goals.

Plays a part in influencing emotions though ANS and ENS

Selecting appropriate behaviours though context and memory.

Responsible for the conscious awareness of emotional states produced by the rest of the limbic system, especially the amygdala.

Damage to prefrontal cortex have faulty decision making processes.

Question 22

Cerebellum (Location and function).

Answer 22

Brain stem structure.

Plays a major part in fine tune accuracy and timing of movement.

Plays a small role in cognitive function.

Animals that are fast in movement and require fine movements such as birds and cats have large cerebellum compared to brain size.

Question 23

Corpus callosum (Location and function)

Answer 23

200 million nerve fibres that join the two hemispheres and allow them communicate.

Question 24

What is the brain stem responsible for and what are it’s three parts?

Answer 24

Receives afferent and send efferent down though spinal cord. Responsible for most life sustaining behaviour.

Hind brain

Mid brain

Diencephalon

Question 25

Hind brain; 4 parts and their locations:

Answer 25

Pons: Connects the Cerebellum to the rest of the brain, controls important movements of the body.

Medulla: Controls vital functions of heart rate and breathing. Sits at very top of spinal column.

Reticular formation: Runs posterior to the Pons and Medulla. Reticular formation is a netlike structure made up of both neurons (Grey matter) and nerve fibre (white matter). Stimulates the forebrain - regulation of sleep - wake behaviours and behavioural arousal.

Cerebellum: Plays a major part in fine tune accuracy and timing of movement. Plays a small role in cognitive function. Animals that are fast in movement and require fine movements such as birds and cats have large cerebellum compared to brain size.

Question 26

Two parts of Midbrain and their functions.

Answer 26

Tectum: Roof of mid-brain. Sensory processing (Visual and auditory). Produces orienting movements like turning your head to see source of sound.

Tegmentum: Limb movement, eye movement, initiating movement. Home of the substantia nigra where the destruction of these cells leads to Parkinson’s.

Question 27

Thalamus:

Answer 27

Part of the brain stems (Diencephalon)

Organiser and integrator of sensory information.

Gateway for channelling sensory information to the cortex, visual, auditory, and smell.

Primary role in is sensory processing.

Also engaged in some motor processing.

Question 28

Hypothalamus.

Answer 28

Part of the brain stems (Diencephalon)

Hormone function through connection to the pituitary gland.

Has a part in almost every part of behaviour, feeding, sexual behaviour, sleeping, temp regulation, movement, and emotional behaviour.

Responsible for most life sustaining, unconscious behaviour.

Question 29

Basal ganglia.

Answer 29

Made up of the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus.

Primarily involved in movement, eg using the appropriate force to hold an object.

Sends information back and forth from spinal column to the brain to manage smooth fluid movement.

Question 30

Somatosensory cortex:

Answer 30

IN the postcentral gyrus, posterior to the central sulcus.

Responsible for processing sensory information.

Question 31

Premotor cortex: Located in frontal lobe.

Answer 31

Organises movement sequences.

Question 32

Motor cortex: Located in frontal lobe.

Answer 32

Produces specific movements.

Question 33

Limbic system.

Answer 33

Regulates emotions and behaviours that store and require memory, works as internal GPS. Made up of the AMYGDALA, HIPPOCAMPUS, and CINGULATE CORTEX.
Regulates emotional and sexual behaviours, memory, and spatial navigation.

Question 34

Amygdala.

Answer 34

Organises behavioural, autonomic & hormonal responses to a variety of situations, including those that produce fear, anger, or disgust.
Also involved in the effects of odours and pheromones on sexual and maternal behaviour.

Question 35

Amygdala Lesions/Animals

Answer 35

Passivity and emotionally unresponsiveness (like “Psychic blindness”).

For example, in research with monkeys and cats, those with damage to their amygdalas would attempt to eat burning matches, their own feces, and other objects that normally would elicit fear or disgust. Monkeys who had responded to snakes with terror before the lesioning of their amygdalas would, after the lesioning, show no fear of the same snakes. Some monkeys even placed the snakes inside their mouths!

Can lead to furious attacks on others (may depend on what parts of the amygdala are destroyed/left intact)

Changes in sexual behavior Amygdala Lesions/Animals

Question 36

Broca’s area.

Answer 36

Located in frontal lobe. Involved in complex speech. Interacts with the flow of sensory information from the temporal lobe. Devises plan for speaking and passes it onto the motor cortex.

Question 37

Medial

Answer 37

Towards middle

Question 38

Lateral

Answer 38

Toward the outside

Question 39

Dorsal

Answer 39

Towards top.

Question 40

Ventral:

Answer 40

Towards bottom

Question 41

Anterior

Answer 41

Towards front

Question 42

Posterior

Answer 42

Towards back

Question 43

Nervous system organisation

Answer 43

Question 44

CNS:

Answer 44

Spinal cord, brainstem, and forebrain.

Question 45

PNS

Answer 45

(Peripheral nervous system) made up of the neurons outside of the brain and spinal cord and takes in the somatic, autonomic, and enteric nervous systems.

Question 46

ANS (two a parts and their functions)

Answer 46

The autonomic nervous system pathways exert opposite effects.

Sympathetic: Arouses the body to action though the fight or flight response by increasing heart rate and blood pressure.

Parasympathetic: Prepares the body for rest and digest by reversing the alarm response or stimulating digestion.

Question 47

SNS

Answer 47

Sensory nerves (Afferent) (Posterior in spinal column)

Motor nerves (Efferent) (Anterior in spinal column)

Question 48

Enteric nervous system

Answer 48

Mesh of neurons embedded in the lining of the gut, running from the esophagus through the colon; controls the gut. Communicates with the CNS though the ANS, but mostly works alone.

Question 49

Ependymal cell.

Answer 49

Produce and excrete cerebrospinal fluid.
Sodium chloride

Question 50

Astrocyte cell.

Answer 50

Works as a scaffold to hold neurons in place by attaching to blood vessels and neurons.
Connections to blood vessels also serve as a conduit to feed certain nutrients to the neurons.

Secrete a chemical to keep neurons healthy.

Where these connections to the blood vessels occur, the astrocytes communicate to the cells that make up the vessels to close up tightly so as not to allow any toxins into the brain, known as the blood brain barrier.

Communicate from neurons to blood vessels when more nutrients is required to facilitate dilation of blood vessels.

Lastly the astrocyte helps to repair neurons when they are damaged.

Question 51

Microglia.

Answer 51

A glial cell. Make up 20% of all glial cells.

Identify and attack foreign tissue in the nervous system.

Because immune cells cannot enter the brain because of the blood brain barrier, there needs to be another catalyst for getting rid of foreign matter, which is the microglia.

Question 52

Oligodendroglia and Schwann cells

Answer 52

Myelin

Insulate neuronal axons improving conduction speed, and help to feed neuron nutrition.

Schwann cells myelinate (Insulate) in PNS and also help to repair nerve damage with the When the new axon sprouts it follows the path created by the Schwann cells

Oligodendroglia myelinates cells in the CNS

Question 53

Key components of a neurons

Answer 53

Dendritic spines
Soma
Axon
Collaterals
Axon Terminal
Myelin sheath

Question 54

Blood-brain barrier

Answer 54

A barrier that is made from the closing up of the cells that make up blood vessels in the brain to protect from toxins.

Thought to occur because of the astrocyte cells that enclose the blood vessels in the communicate with the blood vessel cells.

Some drugs do carry the right signatures to get through some of the transporter proteins if they mimic that particular substances, other drugs are small enough to pass though places where glucose or oxygen can get though.

Question 55

Cell membrane

Answer 55

Phospholipid bilayer. Remember that protein channels are the things like the ligand activated gates.

Question 56

Resting potential

Answer 56

The point that the neuron is ready to be fired and has achieved electrochemical equilibrium though the use of selective membrane permeability.

Normally around -70mV

More K+ Inside the cell than outside (about 20 times). Na+ voltage-gated channels are closed.

Question 57

Action potentials

Answer 57

Neurotransmitters released from the preceding neuron axon terminals, via the terminal buttons, and bond to the ligand-gated channels (usually on the dendrites) to open them. For the action potential to generate there needs to be enough of these open to bring the membrane potential up to -55mV, this is the threshold. This will happen if enough stimulation from the presynaptic terminal comes though (Normally NT) It does this by allowing in enough Na+ through the ligand gated channels which increases the membrane potential. known as graded potential. Sometimes not enough ligand-gated channels are stimulated, in this case you get a small increase in the membrane potential but not enough to cross the threshold, known as graded potential. If enough stimulus to the membrane potential occurs through the influx of Na+, the Na+ voltage-gated channels will open (happens at about -55 mV). Once the gated channels are opened to the sodium ions, they rush into the cell and bring about a positive charge to the intracellular part of the cell and in turn the membrane potential becomes more positive (known as depolarisation when the membrane potential crosses the 0 mV line). Once the membrane potential becomes positive (known as Overshoot) and reaches it’s peak, the voltage gated Na+ channels become inactivated and will not allow in anymore Na+. They become inactivated through a second gate on the Na+ voltage-gated channels, this second gate stops another action potential happening too quickly, and also ensures that the nerve impulse does not travel backwards. The sodium/potassium pumps continue to transfer out the sodium ions in exchange for the potassium ions to ready the action potential to fire again. Nerve impulses are generated along the cell body and down in axon in a cascading manner, as the threshold is reached in one area and Na+ voltage-gated channels open, it raises the membrane potential further along the dendrite/cell body/axon which in turn brings that part up to threshold and opens the Na+ voltage gated channels and so and so forth.

Question 58

Saltatory conduction

Answer 58

Fast propagation of an action potential at successive nodes of Ranvier; saltatory means “leaping.”

Question 59

Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

Answer 59

Normally found on the dendritic tree or spine

Opening transmitter gated ions channels ( Na+) in postsynaptic membrane

Both an electrical and a concentration gradient driving Na+ into the cell;

The postsynaptic membrane will become depolarized (EPSP)

Question 60

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

Answer 60

Normally found on the cell body (If you think about it, the reason for this is because if you wanted to stop the action potential with IPSP, then you would need to stop it further down the chain reaction, so the cell body makes sense)

A impulse arriving in the presynaptic terminal causes the release of neurotransmitter;

The molecular bind and active receptors on the postsynaptic membrane open CI- or, sometimes K+ channels; More CI- enters, K+ outer the cell, producing a hyperpolarization in the postsynaptic membrane.

It inhibits action potentials by increasing the stimulus required to move the membrane potential to the action potential threshold.

Question 61

Role of sodium-potassium pump

Answer 61

Pump sodium out of the cell, 3 sodium ions exported and two potassium ions are imported. Cost one ATP molecule.

Question 62

Measure of voltage across cell membrane

Answer 62

Known as membrane potential.

Outside of the cell is considered 0, so whatever the difference in charge between outside and inside is what the membrane potential is.

Usually sits at -70mV at resting potential.

Question 63

Sequence of chemical events at the synapse. (5)

Answer 63

Precursor transport

The neurotransmitter is synthesized somewhere inside the neuron.

It is packaged and stored within vesicles at the axon terminal.

It is transported to the presynaptic membrane and released into the cleft in response to an action potential in a process of exocytosis.

It binds to and activates receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.

It is degraded or removed, so it will not continue to interact with a receptor and work indefinitely.

Question 64

Two types of summation and how they work.

Answer 64

Summation is the concept of the occurrence of multiple stimulation coming from the same place (spatial summation) and at the same time (temporal summation). When more stimulus occurs together in time and space it creates a bigger wave and will bring the membrane potential closer to threshold, the more stimulus occurring together, the more likely threshold will be met.

Question 65

Drug antagonist

Answer 65

Drug that opposes or inhibits effects of particular neurotransmitter on postsynaptic cell

Block receptors

Block release from vesicle

Question 66

Drug agonist

Answer 66

Drug that facilitates effects of particular neurotransmitter on postsynaptic cell

Can increase production of neurotransmitter.

Promotion of release from vesicle.

Stimulation of the receptor.

Reduction in the enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitter.

Reuptake transporter blocked

Question 67

Sensitisation to drugs:

Answer 67

Opposite to tolerance, an increased responsiveness to successive equal doses.

Does not work in a familiar environment, before becoming addicted or dependent on a drug need to be sensitised by numerous experiences with the drug away from home environment.

Life experience can work in the same way and prime the nervous system for addiction.

Question 68

Withdrawal:

Answer 68

Physical and psychological behaviour displayed by a user when drug use ends.

Question 69

Tolerance:

Answer 69

Decrease in response to drug over time.

Effective does will need to go up over time as tolerance builds.

Can be learned tolerance – learn to cope with being drunk

Metabolic tolerance – produce more enzymes to break down the alcohol.

Cellular tolerance – Brain cells adjust to minimise effects of alcohol

Question 70

Mesolimbic (Dopaminergic) pathways:

Answer 70

Reward system

Starts ventral tegmental area (VTA), through to nucleus accumbens, hippocampus, basal ganglia, and frontal cortex. Also flow to cerebellum.

Thought to be the reward system

Most affected by addictive drugs and behavioural addictions.

Increased DA may be related to schizophrenia

Decrease in DA associated with attention deficits.

Question 71

The Incentive-Sensitization Theory:

Answer 71

Dopamine release is the neural correlate of wanting and the repetition of behaviour.

Cues trigger a wanting.

Cue itself pulls attention.

Pavlovian (classical conditioning) where paired stimulus increases wanting.

Different states can increase cue power. Withdrawal is one.

Question 72

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

Answer 72

Summed graded potentials.

An EEG recorded from the cortex displays an array of patterns, some rhythmical. Alpha rhythms
An EEG recorded from the cortex displays an array of patterns, some rhythmical.

Records electrical information of the brain, used to record sleep stages and excessive neuronal activity associated with seizures.

It is possible to record from outside the skull.

PYRAMIDAL cells span layers of the cortex and have parallel cell bodies. Their combined extracellular field is small but measurable at the scalp.

Question 73

MEG (Magnetoencephalography) x4

Answer 73

Records the magnetic field created by the electrical currents created by neurons.

More precise than EEG.

High cost in comparison to EEG and ERP

Can locate the source of an epileptic discharge

Question 74

TMS (Transcranial magnetic stimulation)

Answer 74

Magnet that can depolarise neurons.

Magnetic field that can depolarises neurons propagating action potentials.

Used to induce behaviour or to disrupt ongoing behaviour.

Question 75

Single-cell recording

Answer 75

Intracellular recordings are is therefore confined to neurons grown in a dish or, for short periods (hours), to neurons in living brain slices.

Problem is intracellular recordings can kill the cell from inserting electrode into it.

Need to insert microelectrode into the cell.

Question 76

Event-related potentials (ERPs)

Answer 76

Complex EEG waveform related in time to a specific event eg. Something happens, EEG spikes, this is the ERP.

Can be used with many electrodes, sometimes 200, to identify brain areas that respond to different stimuli.

Can be used to map the order in which different regions of the brain participate in a stimulus.

Question 77

fMRI Functional magnetic resonance

Answer 77

Measures blood flow to the areas of the brain.

Question 78

Primary motor cortex

Answer 78

Produces skilled movements such as those with the hands arms and mouth. Executes movements

Question 79

Premotor cortex

Answer 79

Receives instructions from the prefrontal and then organises movement sequences. Coordinates different movements together eg. Two hands coordinating to achieve the same task. Does not execute the movements, just plans them out. Motor sequences – movement sequences pre-programmed into the brain and produced as a whole unit.

Question 80

Spinal cord and its involvement in movements (e.g., voluntary vs involuntary movements, spinal reflex, etc)

Answer 80

Spinal column produces movement for people even when they have their spinal column severed. Can be seen in patients automatic leg movement when stimulated from walking when they do not have to hold up their own weight. Seen mostly from the medial interneurons.

Spinal reflexes
Somatosensory neurons send out collaterals to motor neurons, directly or through interneurons, to mediate spinal reflexes.

Question 81

Unilateral damage to spinal column (In regard to somatosensory)

Answer 81

Loss of fine touch and pressure sensation of same side of cut. This is below damage.

Loss of nociception on opposite side of cut. This is below damage.

Question 82

Motor pathways (e.g., corticospinal tract)

Answer 82

Axons from the corticospinal tract originate mainly in the motor cortex, but some also come from the pre-motor cortex and the sensory cortex. They travel through the brainstem where they send out collaterals to other nuclei and emerge on brainstem ventral surface on bumps called pyramids. Finger hand and arm movement cross to the opposite side, while trunk and shoulder movement continue on. Motor neurons carry all information to the muscles. Interneurons coordinate complex movements through their connection to other motor neurons.

Lateral corticospinal tract is crossed. Connects to motor neurons directly or through interneurons to control muscles of limbs and digits. Motor neurons carry all information to the muscles. Connects to the lateral interneurons and motor neurons.

Ventral (anterior) corticospinal tract is uncrossed. Connects with motor neurons directly or through interneurons to innervate the trunk (Midline of body) Motor neurons carry all information to the muscles. Connect to medial (middle) interneurons and motor neurons.

Question 83

Movement disorders (e.g., Parkinson’s disease)

Answer 83

Parkinson’s is caused by the loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra, part of the basal ganglia. When these cells die there is not enough dopamine to transmit messages.

Parkinson’s disease has four major symptoms (although they aren’t necessarily all observed): tremors (generally of arms and hands), cog-wheel rigidity (a stiff, mechanical type of movement), akinesia (lack of movement) or bradykinesia (slowness of movement), and disturbances of posture.

Some back and forth here as too much dopamine is thought to cause schizophrenia, and too little Parkinson’s.

Question 84

Treatment for Parkinsons

Answer 84

Normally L-dopa or some drug that increases levels of dopamine.
Deep brain stimulation (subthalamic brain stim)
Combination of drugs and DBS
Transcranial direct current (research sketchy)
Levodopa/carbidopa/entacapone

Question 85

Three components of emotion

Answer 85

Physiological/Autonomic response (e.g., increased heart rate)
Hypothalamus and associated structures as well as ENS

Subjective feelings (e.g., fear)
Amygdala and parts of frontal lobes

Cognitions (e.g., thoughts about the experience)
Cerebral cortex

Question 86

Neural control of emotion 3 theories.

Answer 86

Constructivist theories argue that the brain produces a cognitive response to autonomic states.

Appraisal theories define emotional episodes as processes rather than states. Emotions result from an evaluation of context, including somatic components, which lead to a subjective feeling.

Neuropsychological theories emphasize asymmetrical cerebral control of emotions. Eg. Right hemisphere plays a large part in emotion, like left does for language.

Question 87

Where in the brain do emotions generate from

Answer 87

Emotions are not found in a single place in the brain but rather are distributed in limbic and frontal lobe structures, especially the amygdala and prefrontal cortex. Emotional disorders, such as depression and anxiety, are believed to result from dysfunction in these structures.

Limbic system (amygdala and hippocampus)

Hypothalamus

Prefrontal cortex

Cingulate cortex

Question 88

Where in the brain does motivated behaviour generate from

Answer 88

Some connections do bypass the hypothalamus, so the thought is that motivated behaviour is primarily through the hypothalamus.

Question 89

Regulatory behaviours.

Answer 89

Behaviours motivated to meet an animals survival needs.

Internal body temperature

Easting and drinking

Salt consumption

Waste elimination

Question 90

James-Lange theory of emotion

Answer 90

A constructivist theory.

The idea that we first have a physiological response to stimuli, this response tells us we are afraid.

Question 91

Synaptic homeostasis memory theory of sleep.

Answer 91

Theory that says

Sleep allows synapses to return to quiet state and so conserve energy

Synapses in this state are able to return to a plastic state that was lost through use and ready to be used again when awake.

Synapses that have been under heavy metabolic state due to use take longer to move to resting state, this allows them to undergo structural changes when other neurons around them are in a state of rest.

Question 92

Circadian rhythm

Answer 92

Daily cycle including, pulse rate, blood pressure, alertness, metabolic rate, sexual drive, cognitive ability, and emotions.

Nearly every cell in our body produces a circadian rhythm.

Can be entrained and disrupted with zeitgebers. Eg. Light at night, jet lag etc.

Question 93

Brain structure(s) underlying sleep

Answer 93

Reticular activating system (RAS) basal ganglia, median raphe are involved in waking

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus is the primary circadian pacemaker, regulating sleep and wake cycles by receiving input from light-sensitive cells in the retina.
The pineal gland produces the hormone melatonin, which helps to regulate sleep-wake cycles.

The thalamus and brainstem play a role in maintaining sleep and regulating transitions between different stages of sleep, including slow-wave sleep (stage 3 of non-rapid eye movement or NREM) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep.

The prefrontal cortex is involved in maintaining wakefulness and attention during the day and is inhibited during sleep.

Question 94

NREM

Answer 94

Non-Rapid Eye Movement or NREM sleep) dominates the early sleep periods

NREM level 3 sleep remembering declarative facts and events.

Many activities occur (e.g., decrease in body temperature, increase in growth hormone release)

Dreaming occurs in N-sleep but are not as vivid as in R-sleep.

Maintaining muscle posture during N-sleep

Talking and movement can happen here.

Sleep may occur in a variety of postures, including standing up, sitting (as might occur in a lecture), or in any of several reclining positions.

Question 95

REM

Answer 95

(Rapid Eye Movement REM sleep) dominates later sleep.
REM is important for procedural memory, responsible for learning and executing motor skills.

Atonia - No tone; a condition of complete muscle inactivity produced as sleep regions of the brainstem inhibit motor neurons

Mechanisms that regulate body temperature decrease in activity.

Body temperature moves toward room temperature.

Vivid dreams

Question 96

Seasonal affective disorder

Answer 96

Form of depression

Low levels of sunlight do not entrain circadian rhythm, therefore circadian rhythm is disrupted.

Can also be caused by lack of vitamin d.

Melanopsin which is sensitive to blue light used for light treatment.

Question 97

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

Answer 97

Increase in EPSP

Long-lasting increase in synaptic effectiveness after high-frequency stimulation.

Long term potentiation can be caused by structural changes at the presynaptic (greater release of neurotransmitters) and postsynaptic (More channels/protein gates) terminals.

NMDA receptors release magnesium ion after strong stimulation allowing influx of calcium, this creates the cascade that adds new protein to the post synaptic terminal.

Question 98

Long-term depression (LTD)

Answer 98

Decrease in EPSP
Caused by low level stimulation that is not enough to fire an action potential

Question 99

Operant conditioning.

Answer 99

Reward or Punishment = Behaviour.
Train behaviour
Positive reinforcement = add something the is pleasant, a reward.

Negative reinforcement = to remove something unpleasant.

Stop behaviour
Positive punishment - Add a punishment eg. A fine for speeding.

Negative punishment - Remove something as a punishment eg. remove license.

Punishment can only work to stop behaviour, it does not work well for teaching.

Question 100

Pavlovian (classical) conditioning.

Answer 100

Neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned response to create a conditioned response

Question 101

Learning

Answer 101

Persistent or even permanent change in behaviour from experience.

Question 102

Implicit memory.

Answer 102

Unconscious memory (passive learning)

Cannot explicitly retrieve the information

How a sentence works, or how adjectives are strung together. Think about Ping pong or bing bang bong. How to walk, anything you know without knowing it, grammar rules, conditioning, skills.

Question 103

Explicit memory

Answer 103

Conscious memory. Eg. The things that you learn in class.

Short term
Limited capacity

Long term
Unlimited capacity
Encoding
Consolidation
Storage
Retrieval

Question 104

Spatial memory

Answer 104

Hippocampus involved, animals that need to remember where their food is have bigger hippocampus (Think of taxi drivers of London)

Question 105

Brain structures memory

Answer 105

Encoding (frontal lobe)
Consolidation (hippocampus)
Storage (distributed)

The basal ganglia and cerebellum are involved in procedural memory, which is responsible for learning and executing motor skills.

The amygdala is involved in the emotional valence of memories, influencing the strength and persistence of emotional memories.

Question 106

Alzheimer’s disease (risk and protective factors)

Answer 106

Risk factors:
Presence of the Apoe4 gene
Below average IQ
Poor education
Traumatic brain injury

Protective factors
Presence of the Apoe2 gene
Higher IQ
Higher educational attainment

Question 107

Alzheimer’s characteristics

Answer 107

Amyloid plaques in allocortex and neocortex.

Neurofibrillary tangles in allocortex and neocortex

Brain atrophy

Posterior hippocampus more affected that anterior hippocampus.

Question 108

HPA axis

Answer 108

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. (slow stress)

When stressed activates the adrenal medulla to produce cortisol

Overactive HPA axis lead to an over secretion of cortisol which can then lead to depression

.

Question 109

Schizophrenia

Answer 109

Characterised by excess dopamine

Treated with antipsychotics, normally a dopamine antagonist. (Impacts of dopamine antagonist is weight gain, motor disturbance, and impact to motivation though the mesolimbic dopamine system)

Genetic component

Also attributed to glutamate and GABA abnormalities.

Question 110

Challenges to diagnosing psychiatric conditions

Answer 110

Most diagnostic information is reported by client and family members

Lack of objectivity in self-observation, or observation of a loved one

Selective noticing and reporting of symptoms
i.e., if someone thinks they have a memory problem, they may notice memory lapses that they typically don’t take notice and may minimise symptoms that does not fit with a memory-based condition

Lack of specificity in symptom descriptions
i.e., knowing that it is a “memory problem” is not enough

What kind of memory deficit underlies the problem?
Memory for Words? Places? Faces? Habits?

All involve different processes, different pathologies, and different brain systems
Likely require different intervention strategies
or could also be symptomatic of different conditions

Different members of a multidisciplinary team can view and interpret behavioural data differently
Their view/interpretation will inform:
Diagnostic questions they ask
Observations they make
Diagnostic tests they use

Behavioural and psychiatric disorders are complex and difficult to diagnose than organic disorders
Require subjective observations and interpretations
Depression/anxiety cannot be diagnosed with a blood test

Question 111

Nociception

Answer 111

Perception of pain, temperature, or itch.

Question 112

Proprioception

Answer 112

Body awareness, is the perception of body location and movement.

Question 113

Wernicke’s area

Answer 113

Area of brain for speech comprehension.

Question 114

Depolarisation vs repolarisation

Answer 114

Depolarization (Action potential) is caused when positively charged sodium ions rush into a neuron with the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels. Repolarization (After action potential) is caused by the closing of sodium ion channels and the opening of potassium ion channels

Question 115

THE 7-STEP PROCESS FROM NEUROTRANSMITTER RELEASE TO POSTSYNAPTIC EXCITATION OR INHIBITION

Answer 115

Question 116

What is spinal fluid made from

Answer 116

Sodium chloride.