PSY FINAL MODULES 6-11 Flashcards
unconditioned stimulus
is a stimulus that leads to an automatic response. In Pavlov’s experiment, the food was the unconditioned stimulus
unconditioned response
is an automatic response to a stimulus. The dogs salivating for food is the unconditioned response in Pavlov’s experiment
neutral stimulus
is a stimulus that at first elicits no response. Pavlov introduced the ringing of the bell as a neutral stimulus
conditioned stimulus
is a stimulus that can eventually trigger a conditioned response. In the described experiment, the conditioned stimulus was the ringing of the bell, and the conditioned response was salivation
conditioned response
is a behavior that does not come naturally, but must be learned by the individual by pairing a neutral stimulus with a potent stimulus
Factors that influence conditioning
(1) the number of pairings of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus, (2) the intensity of the unconditioned stimulus
(3) how reliably the conditioned stimulus predicts the unconditioned stimulus
(4) the temporal relationship between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.
Principles of classical conditioning
Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Stimulus Generalization Discrimination
Acquisition
is the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually strengthened. During the acquisition phase of classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
Spontaneous Recovery
is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period or period of lessened response.
Stimulus Generalization
is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned
Discrimination
is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
Operant/instrumental conditioning
Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that uses rewards and punishment to modify behavior
Reinforcement
strengthen behavior/increase likelihood of behavior
Punishment
weakens behavior/decreases likelihood of behavior
positive
adds something
negative
takes away something
Schedules of reinforcement
are the rules that determine how often an organism is reinforced for a particular behavior
Fixed-interval schedules
are those where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed
Variable-interval schedules
occur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response
Fixed-ratio schedules
are those in which a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses
Variable-ratio schedules
occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses.
Shaping
is a form of behavior modification based on operant conditioning. Through the process of successive approximation, behaviors that are closer and closer to a target behavior are progressively rewarded with positive reinforcement
Extinction
refers to the gradual weakening of a conditioned response that results in the behavior decreasing or disappearing. In other words, the conditioned behavior eventually stops.
Most effective schedules of reinforcement
VR - FR - VI - FI
Observational learning
The is the process of learning by watching the behaviors of others
four phases of observational learning
attentional, retention, motor reproduction, and motivational
Bobo Doll experiments
proved that children can learn through observation and later imitating the same behaviors with a combination of environmental and cognitive processes. Its aim was to discover the extent of environmental influence on aggressive behavior.
Atkinson-Shiffrin 3 memory systems model
Sensory memory, ST memory, LT memory
Sensory memory
Sensory memory is the perception of sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch information entering through the sensory cortices of the brain and relaying through the thalamus
Short-term memory
indicates different systems of memory involved in the retention of pieces of information (memory chunks) for a relatively short time (usually up to 30 seconds).
Long-term memory
Long-term memory refers to the transfer of information from short-term memory into long-term storage in order to create enduring memories. This type of memory is unlimited in capacity and stable—lasting for years or even a lifetime.
Transfer from STM to LTM
Short-term memories can become long-term memories through a process known as consolidation
working memory
Working memory is one of the brain’s executive functions. It’s a skill that allows us to work with information without losing track of what we’re doing. Think of working memory as a temporary sticky note in the brain.
Elaborative rehearsal
Deep levels of encoding occur when information is encoded semantically, by relating it to other words, ideas, or previous knowledge
Shallow processing
shallow processing involves cognitive processing of a stimulus that focuses on its superficial, perceptual characteristics rather than its meaning
Deep processing
deep processing entails elaboration rehearsal, including interaction with the information through meaningful analyses (associations, visualizations, critical thinking processes) of the information
Mnemonics
the study and development of systems for improving and assisting the memory
Schema
a mental framework that helps individuals organize, process, and store information about their environment
Interference
occurs when some information makes it difficult to recall similar material
types of interference
proactive interference, in which old memories disrupt the retrieval of new memories, and retroactive interference, in which new memories disrupt the retrieval and maintenance of old memories.
episodic memories
Memories whose contents pertain to specific event’s
Semantic memories
Memories whose contents relate to specific facts and pieces of meaningful information not based on personal experience
encoding specificity principle
idea that retrieval cues are only useful as long as they match the original context of how the to be remembered information was originally learned
amnesia
memory loss due to physical damage or problems in brain
retrograde amnesia
loss of memories prior to specific traumatic event such as blow to the had or certain other conditions
anterograde amnesia
inability to make new memories
Latent learning
Learning that has occurred but hasn`t been demonstrated yet
Attentional phase
A phase of social learning in which an observer watches a model doing something
Retention phase
phase of social learning in which an observer remembers what the model did and can imitate that response later
production phase
a phase of social learning in which an observer copies what the model demonstrated
motivational phase
a phase of social learning in which the observer obtain the same outcome as the model for the same response
learned helplessness
experiencing an aversive situation you cant control prevents you from learning to control other aversive situations
emotions
short lived feelings we have towards an object or situational event - these feelings often correspond to specific facial expressions adaptive responses to aid survival
motivation
the reason or reasons one has for acting or behaving in a particular way
james-lange thoery of emotions
Perceive stimulus, express the emotion the stimulus evokes, identify their emotions (emotions stem from interpretation of the body)
Cannon-Bard thalamic theory of emotions
perceive stimulus, simultaneously express emotion and identify emotion
action unit
Each emotion has a specific facial expression that we can detect involving movement of eyebrows nose mouth cheeks and eyes
2 factor theory
2 ingredients to emotion, arousal and cognitive appraisal
4 universal emotions
happy, anxious, surprise, disgust
Drive-reduction theory
need is determined by a combination of learning and a person physiology and need will intensity will be reflected in the intensity of responding
Yerkes and Dodson
found that arousal was interchangeable with whatever happens due to stimulus intensity in other words performance increases with mental arousal or stress up to a certian point
Darwin’s three principles
variation, heredity, and selection. These principles explain how species change over time
Premack principle
highly desirable, more probable behaviors can be used to reinforce less desirable
response deprivation hypothesis
restricting one behavior will cause a deprivation of that behavior, which can be used to create a scenario where the possibility of being allowed the deprived behavior can potentially reinforce another behavior
establishing operations
Increase the effectiveness of reinforcers an evoke behavior related to them
abolishing operations
Decrease the effectiveness of reinforcers and decrease behavior related to obtaining them
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
a theory of motivation which states that five categories of human needs dictate an individual’s behavior
order of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
physiological > safety > love/belonging > self esteem > self actualization
intrinsic motivation
ambitions stemmed from our own standards
Extrinsic motivation
ambitions/motivations imposed upon us
The facial feedback hypothesis
individuals’ emotional experiences are influenced by their facial expressions example, smiling should typically make individuals feel happier
2 types of motivating operations
establishing operations and abolishing operations
Split brain
A type of surgery that cuts the connections between the two hemispheres of the brain to reduce frequency and severity of seizures
Corpus callosum
large band of axons that connect the two hemispheres of the brain
Hemispheric specialization
Refers to the idea that the two hemispheres in your brain (right and left) have differing functions
Conscious content
The subjective experiences of your internal and external world
States of consciousness
Refers to the different levels of arousal and attention an individual can experience
Attention
The process of selecting information from the internal and external environments to prioritize for processing
Passive attention
Occurs when the attentional priorities are set by bottom up information from the environment
Active attention
Occurs when attentional priorities are set by the top down goals of an individual
Selective attention
A form of attention that occurs when a person attends to some information while ignoring other information
Cocktail party effect
Describes a situation with selective attention, at a party a person can be engaged in a conversation and supress and ignore all the other information and stimuli around them
Dichotic listening task
An attention task where one stream of information is presented to one ear and a different message is played in the other, participant is asked to only attend one message and is later asked about the unattended message
Divided attention
Occurs when a person engages in two or more tasks at once
Inattentional blindness
Refers to the tendency to miss changes to some kins of information when your attention is engaged elsewhere
Alpha waves
Occur when a person is quietly resting and not doing any rigorous thinking most common occurrence of alpha waves is when a person is relaxed
Theta waves
The waves that appear on an EEG when a person is deeply relaxed or falling asleep
Sleep Spindles
Brief bursts of activity that occur 2-5 times per minute occurring during non rem sleep
K complexes
A pattern of neural excitation followed by neural inhibition occurring during stage 2 sleep. Often triggered by unexpected noises
Delta wave
Brain waves that appear on an EEG when a person is deeply asleep these waves occur during stages 3-4 also known as slow wave sleep
Slow wave sleep
A broader name for sleep occurring in stage 3-4 During this stage recordings on EEG show delta waves
Rapid eye movement
A stage of sleep where narrative based dreaming occurs, during this stage EEG recordings become highly irregular and the sleeping persons eyes will move from side to side rapidly. Beta and theta waves are often common during this stage of sleep
Waves associated with respective sleep stages (Stage 1, stage 2, slow wave sleep, REM)
Theta waves begin in Stage 1 as brain activity begins to synchronize, followed by sleep spindles and K-complexes in Stage 2. Delta activity is characteristic of slow-wave sleep, with REM returning to desynchronized theta activity with additional blood flow to the visual association cortex
Name of two major sleep disorders
dyssomnias, refer to problems with the quality of sleep. Parasomnias, by contrast, are disturbances that occur during sleep.
Insomnia
Inability to fall or stay asleep
Biological clocks
internal clocks that prepare the body for daily seasonal and annual rhythms
Circadian rhythms
Daily clocks that tell the body when to sleep and wake
Depressants vs Stimulants
Depressants slow or depress arousal of CNS whereas stimulants increase activity of nervous system
Glutamate
neurotransmitter that often creates excitatory effects in nervous system
GABA
neurotransmitter that often creates inhibitory effects of nervous system
barbiturates
group of drugs that cause sedation and induce sleep used historically to treat anxiety
benzodiazepine
group of drugs primarily used for treating anxiety known for being fast acting and addictive
Stimulants
drugs that increase activity of nervous system common stimulants include caffeine nicotine cocaine and amphetamines
adenosine
inhibitory neurotransmitter that creates inhibitory effects on brain
acetylcholine
neurotransmitter that often creates an excitatory effect in the brain
synesthesia
side effect associated with the use of psychedelic drugs whereby patients report the merging of sences
