Prosocial Behavior & Prejudice/Discrimination Flashcards
Prosocial Behavior
list the 5 step process of deciding what to do in an emergency based on the case of Kitty Genovese & Latene & Darley’s (1970) subsequent research
Step 1: Noticing the Event
Step 2: Interpreting the Event
Step 3: Assuming Responsibility
Step 4: Determining How to Help
Step 5: Deciding Whether or Not to Help
Prosocial Behavior
according to Latane & Darley’s (1970) process, this step is characterized by noticing that something unusual is happening, which may not occur because the bystander is preoccupied with their own thoughts or because of stimulus overload
step 1: noticing the event
Prosocial Behavior
according to Latane & Darley’s (1970) process, this step is characterized by the bystander interpreting the event as an emergency, which may not happen because of the ambiguity of the situation or because of pluralistic ignorance (or the misperception of how others are thinking or feeling)
step 2: interpreting the event
Prosocial Behavior
according to Latane & Darley’s (1970) process, this step is characterized by the bystander recognizing there’s an emergency and deciding whether or not to provide assistance when other bystanders are present, which may not happen because of diffusion of responsibility (or a reduced sense of personal responsibility due to the belief that others are willing & able to provide assistance)
step 3: assuming responsibility
Prosocial Behavior
according to Latane & Darley’s (1970) process, this step is characterized by the bystander recognizing that a victim needs assistance and attempting to determine how to do so, which they may be unable to do or they may not feel competent to
step 4: determing how to help
Prosocial Behavior
according to Latane & Darley’s (1970) process, this step is characterized by the bystander deciding whether or not to provide help, which may not happen, even if they competent to, because of evaluation apprehension (or concerns about being judged negatively by others)
step 5: deciding whether or not to help
Prosocial Behavior
this term, associated with step 1 of Latane & Darely’s (1970) process of deciding what to do in an emergency, occurs in big cities & other noisy environments, which causes a person to restrict their attention to stimuli that seem personally meaningful
stimulus overload
Prosocial Behavior
this term, associated with step 2 of Latane & Darely’s (1970) process of deciding what to do in an emergency, refers to the misperception of how others are thinking or feeling and occurs when a bystander doesn’t take action because they conclude that the inactivity of other bystanders is due to the fact that they know the situation does not constitute an emergency
pluralistic ignorance
Prosocial Behavior
this term, associated with step 3 of Latane & Darely’s (1970) process of deciding what to do in an emergency, refers to a reduced sense of personal responsibility due to the belief that others are willing and able to provide assistance, and it increases as the number of bystanders increase
diffusion of responsibility
studies have found that a victim is most likely to get help when there is only 1 bystander
Prosocial Behavior
this term, associated with step 5 of Latane & Darely’s (1970) process of deciding what to do in an emergency, refers to concerns about being judged negatively by others and involves a bystander, who feels competent to provide help, having difficulty deciding whether or not to do so
evaluation apprehension
aka audience inhibition
Prosocial Behavior
which of the following statements most accurately describes research examining bystander apathy:
A) bystander apathy is more associated with a bystander’s current location, which means a bystander is less likely to help a person in distress when the incident occurs in an urban area
B) bystander apathy is more associated with a bystander’s current location, which means a bystander is less likely to help a person in distress when the incident occurs in a rural area
C) bystander apathy is more associated with a bystander’s location of socialization, which means a bystander is less likely to help a person in distress when the incident occurs in an urban area
D) bystander apathy is more associated with a bystander’s location of socialization, which means a bystander is less likely to help a person in distress when the incident occurs in a rural area
A) bystander apathy is more associated with a bystander’s current location, which means a bystander is less likely to help a person in distress when the incident occurs in an urban area
Prosocial Behavior
according to this hypothesis, empathic concern provides the altruistic motive for helping people, i.e., people help another person because they’re concerned about the person’s well-being
Batson’s (1991) empathy-altruism hypothesis
Prosocial Behavior
this model, focused the role of egoism, proposes that people help others to reduct their own distress and assumes that people may feel empathy for a person in-need, but their empathy produces sadness or guilt, which they attempt to alleviate by providing help
Cialdini et al.’s (1973) negative state relief model
Prosocial Behavior
this explanation of empathy as a source of motivation for helping others has received the most empirical support, which has provided evidence that a helping others for altruistic (rather than egotistic) reasons is more likely to lead to sustained helping
empathy-altruism hypothesis
Prejudice & Discrimination
list 3 benefits Aronson et al. (1978) found in his research using jigsaw classrooms
- reduced racial/ethnic prejudice & discrimination
- increased self-esteem & empathy
- improved academic performance among ethnically marginalized students without hindering the performance of white students
Prejudice & Discrimination
Sherif’s (1966) Robbers Cave study found the most effective strategy to reduce intergroup conflict was this, which refers to a shared goal that can only be accomplished when group members worked together cooperatively
superordinate goals
Prejudice & Discrimination
this theory assumes that prejudice & discrimination are the result of direct competition between different groups for scarce & valued resources and a number of studies provide evidence for this theory, including Sherif’s (1966) Robbers Cave study.
realistic conflict theory
Prejudice & Discrimination
this theory assumes that people have a natural tendency to categorize people into groups, to identify with one or more groups, & to favor in-groups and that prejudice & discrimination are the result of in-group favoritism, which occurs when positive feelings toward an in-group increase a group member’s self-esteem leading to increased negative feelings towards out-groups
Tajfel & Turner’s (1986) social identity theory
Prejudice & Discrimination
this theory assumes that prejudice occurs because members of dominant groups use discrimination against weak target groups to vent their frustration and disappointment and has been used to explain why frustrating socioeconomic conditions (e.g., high rates of unemployment & inflation) can cause members of the majority group to discriminate against members of minority groups
Breckler et al.’s (2006) scapegoat theory
Prejudice & Discrimination
this theory attributes extreme forms of prejudice & discrimination to an authoritarian personality, which is described as being the result of a harsh, restrictive upbringing and involving 9 personality traits: conventionalism, authoritarian submission, authoritarian aggression, anti-intraception, superstition & stereotypy, power & toughness, destructiveness & cynicism, projectivity, & puritanical sexual attitudes
Adorno et al.’s (1950) authoritarian personality theory
Prejudice & Discrimination
this theory is based on the assumptions that 1) like other animals, humans have a biological drive to stay alive and 2) unlike other animals, humans have cognitive abilities that allow them to be aware of their own existence & of threats to existence that thwart the drive to stay alive of prejudice & discrimination and has been applied to a number of phenomena, including mental health, personality, altruism, aggression, and prejudice & discrimination
Greenberg et al.’s (1986) Terror Management Theory
Prejudice & Discrimination
research by Tajfel et al. (1971) found that in-group favoritism developed even in “minimal group” conditions, explain what this means
when group membership was temporary & based on relatively unimportant similarities
Prejudice & Discrimination
Adorno et al. (1950) developed the F (fascism) Scale to assess authoritarianism and found that scores on the scale had high correlatoins with scores on measures of these 2 personality/behavioral factors
ethnocentrism & prejudice
Prejudice & Discrimination
terror management theory contends that awareness of mortality creates a sense of terror and that cultural worldvies & self-esteem act as defenses against terror - in other words, people manage terror due to awareness of mortality in these 2 ways
1) by maintaining faith in cultural worldview that imbues reality with order, meaning, & permanence and provides paths to literal and/or symbolic immortality for those who meet prescribed standards of value
2) by adhering to standards consistent with their worldview to maintain their self-esteem
Prejudice & Discrimination
according to terro management theory, this term refers to awareness of the inevitability of death
mortality salience
Prejudice & Discrimination
some studies investigating terror management theory’s impact on prejudice & discrimination have established that amplifying what increases negative evaluations of & reactions to out-group members and increases positive evaluations of & reactions to in-group members
mortality salience
Prejudice & Discrimination
Schimel et al. (1999) found that amplifying mortality salience increases stereotypic thinking & preference for people who conform to stereotype. What do they propose is the reason for these effects?
- people use their cultural worldview (i.e., their own conception of social reality) as a shield against deeply rooted fears
- by viewing others as their stereotypes & preferring those who confirm (over those who disconfirm) these stereotypes, they solidify their own conception of social reality (i.e., their cultural worldview)
Prejudice & Discrimination
list 3 methods for increasing mortality salience
1) asking subjects to imagine their own deaths or complete a death anxiety scale
2) interviewing subjects outside a funeral home or near a cemetery
3) exposing subjects to subliminal death-related words (e.g., dead, coffin) during a computer-administrated world-relation test
Prejudice & Discrimination
this concept refers to an evaluative stance (merely cognitive or also behavioral) toward other humans that involves drawing a line between individuals or groups (as in-group/out-group) according to an assumed concept of what it means to be human and is used to explain prejudice & discrimination, which
dehumanization
Prejudice & Discrimination
early theories focused on blatant dehumanization, which denied the humanness of outgroup members and can elicit extreme aggression & violence toward them, whereas recent theories focus on this concept, which views outgroup members as less than human rather than non-human
subtle dehumanization
Prejudice & Discrimination
this theory focuses on a type of subtle dehumanization and refers to a process by which people consider their ingroup as fully human & outgroups as less human and more animal-like and occurs even in the absence of intergroup antagonism or differences in status
Leyens et al.’s (2001) infrahumanization theory
Prejudice & Discrimination
researchers distinguish between primary emotions as being non-uniquely human and secondary emotions as being uniquely human. List examples of each
primary: anger, surprise, fear
secondary: pride, hope, shame, resentment, disappointment
Prejudice & Discrimination
research on in-group/out-group members and positive/negative secondary emotions found that people tend to humanize members of their in-groups by attributing more positive secondary emotions to them which, in turn, elicits ____ and ____ ____ toward those individuals. In contrast, people tend to attribute fewer positive and negative secondary emotions to members of out-groups, which elicits less ____ and ____ of them.
- empathy & prosocial behaviors
- less empathy and acceptance
Prejudice & Discrimination
this hypothesis, the basis of many interventions for reducing prejudice & discrimination, proposes that contact between members of majority & minority groups is most effective for reducing prejudice & discrimination when a) members of the groups have equal status, b) members must work together to achieve common (subordinate) goals, c) there is no competition between members, and d) the contact is sanctioned by law, custom, or institutional authorities
Allport’s (1954) contact hypothesis
Prejudice & Discrimination
this occurs when people are aware of their racist attitudes & behaviors and try to conceal their true intent by giving socially acceptable explanations for them
inentional covert racism
Prejudice & Discrimination
this occurs when people do not deliberately engage in harmful acts & are unaware of the negative consequences of their prejudiced attitudes & discriminatory behaviors
unintentional covert racism
Prejudice & Discrimination
this is a type of covert racism and is characterized by a belief in egalitarianism coupled with the beliefs that 1) prejudice & discrimination no longer exist, 2) that members of certain minority groups violate traditional white American values such as the Protestant work ethic, individualism & self-determination, and 3) that the social & economical hardships of these groups are due to a lack of effort & other internal factors
e.g., a person exhibiting these behaviors might justify their opposition to affirmative action & other policies and programs designed to promote equality on the grounds that they’re unfair
(Sears, 1988) symbolic racism
Prejudice & Discrimination
this is a type of covert racism and is characterized by a belief in egalitarianism that is accompanied by a non-prejudiced self-image and negative, often unconscious feelings about minority group members that were acquired early in life.
e.g., people exhibiting these behaviors may avoid interacting with minority group members when possible & act in discriminatory ways only when doing so can be justified on a basis other than race
(Dovidio & Gaertner, 2004) aversive racism
Prejudice & Discrimination
this is a type of covert racism and is characterized by a combination of positive & negative attitudes towards minority group member and these conflicting attitudes lead to emotional tension, which a person attempts to reduce by amplifying their positive or negative attitudes; in other words, these individuals response in more extreme ways to situations involving a minority group member than they do to similar situations involving a majority group member
e.g., when rating minority & majority group members who have engaged in undesirable behaviors, these people will give more negative ratings to minority group members
(Katz & Haas, 1988) ambivalent racism
Prejudice & Discrimination
match the description with the correct level of racism: structural, institutional, interpersonal, & internalized (intrapersonal)
A) this level of racism occurs when individuals from socially & politically dominant racial groups behave in ways that diminish & har people who belong to other racial groups (e.g., microaggressions)
B) this level of racism refers to laws, policies, & practices that produce cumulative, durable, & race-based inequalities and includes the failure to correct previous laws & practices that were explicitly racist (e.g., redlining & overvaluing white residential property and neighborhood)
C) this level of racism refers to the acceptance by diverse racial populations of the negative societal beliefs & stereotypes about themselves… that reinforce the superiority of whites & can lead to the perceptin of themselves as devalued, worthless, & powerless
D) this level of racism results from policies, practices, & procedures of institutions, such as health care, law enforcement, & criminal justice systems, that marginalize diverse racial groups (e.g., Zero Tolerance policies in schools that cause a disproportionate number of racial/ethnic students to be suspended or expelled)
A) interpersonal
B) structural
C) internalized (intrapersonal; e.g., colorism)
D) institutional
Prejudice & Discrimination
research suggests that women are most commonly targets of sexism due to what?
their nondominant position in society
Prejudice & Discrimination
according to this theory, sexism includes two distinct but co-existing & complementary components (i.e., hostile and benevolent sexism), which both reflect the idea that women are inferior to men & thereby justify and maintain gender inequality
Glick & Fiske’s (1996, 2001) ambivalent sexism theory
Prejudice & Discrimination
this term, associated with Glick & Fiske’s (1996, 2001) ambivalent sexism theory, refers to sexism involving antipathy toward women who are viewed as usurping men’s power
hostile sexism
Prejudice & Discrimination
this term, associated with Glick & Fiske’s (1996, 2001) ambivaent sexism theory, refers to sexism involving a subjectively favorable, chivalrous ideology that offers protection & affection to women who embrace conventional roles
benevolent sexism
Prejudice & Discrimination
Glick & Fiske’s (2001) research confirmed that men exhibiting ambivalent sexism often reconcile their competing views of women by distinguishing between these two types of women
1) hostile sexism: feminists, career women, & other women who they view as violating traditional gender norms
2) benevolent sexism: women they believe are adhering to traditional gender roles
Prejudice & Discrimination
this concept refers to a person’s unconscious internalization of positive & negative stereotypes that are applied to their own group by other groups
self-stereotyping
Prejudice & Discrimination
research 1) has found that self-stereotyping can have negative or positive effects, even when the stereotypes are negative and 2) supports the notion that endorsing negative stereotypes of one’s own group can help protect a person’s self-esteem how?
(e.g., women are more likely to adopt the stereotype “women are bad at math” when they anticipate or experience failure on a math exam
…by serving as an explanation of their behavior or outcomes
Prejudice & Discrimination
this occurs when situational factors activate group stereotypes in members of low status groups, including assimilation to the stereotypes or self-stereotyping
stereotype threat
Prejudice & Discrimination
which of the following statements most accurately reflects the findings of Hess et al.’s (2003) study on stereotype threat
A) performance of older adults (but not younger adults) on a memory task decreased after reading a news article that confirmed age-related memory decline but did not decrease after reading a news article that refuted the stereotype
B) performance of younger adults (but not older adults) on a memory task decreased after reading a news article that confirmed age-related memory decline but did not decrease after reading a news article that refuted the stereotype
C) performance of older adults (but not younger adults) on a memory task decreased after reading a news article that confirmed age-related memory decline and increased after reading a news article that refuted the stereotype
D) performance of younger adults (but not younger adults) on a memory task decreased after reading a news article that confirmed age-related memory decline and increased after reading a news article that refuted the stereotype
A) performance of older adults (but not younger adults) on a memory task decreased after reading a news article that confirmed age-related memory decline but did not decrease after reading a news article that refuted the stereotype
Prejudice & Discrimination
list 1 explanation for the impact of stereotype threat on task performance
it increases physiological arousal, stress, & negative self-talk, thereby reducing the cognitive resources needed to accomplish the task
Prejudice & Discrimination
studies on shooter bias using videogame simulation designed to recreate the experience of a police office who suddently encounters a potentially dangerous suspect has measure shoorter bias with response time & accuracy and confirmed its occurrence in these 2 outcomes
when subjects:
1) decide to shoot armed Black suspects more quickly than armed white suspects, but conversely, decide to refrain from shooting unarmed white suspects more quickly than unarmed Black suspects
2) erroneously decide to shoot unarmed Black suspects more frequently than unarmed white suspects, and conversely, erroneously decide not to shoot armed white suspects more frequently than they decide not to shoort armed Black suspects
Prejudice & Discrimination
Correll et al.’s (2007) study comparing shooter bias among police officers vs. civilians (DMV workers) confirmed that what was a better predictor of shooter bias than personal endorsement of racial stereotypes or personal prejudice
participants’ familiarity with cultural stereoypes of Black men as being dangerous, violent, & aggressive
