Professional Practices Ethics Flashcards
1
Q
independent variable:
A
is the one that is manipulated in order to observe the effects on the dependent variable, which is unchanging.
2
Q
What variable is manipulated?
A
independent variable
3
Q
What variable is unchanging?
A
dependent variable
4
Q
The modern history of the counseling field dates back to:
A
the late 19th century. In 1913, the National Vocational Guidance Association was founded as the first professional counseling association, and in 1952 merged with several other organizations to form what would later become the American Counseling Association (ACA).
5
Q
What are the two types of research?
A
Inductive and deductive
6
Q
Inductive research:
A
begins at the practical level and tends to descriptively add to developing theories.
7
Q
Deductive research:
A
comes from theory that is already established, and tends to focus on determining what the relationships between different elements of the theory are.
8
Q
Variance refers to:
A
the degree to which scores are different from each other. When measuring variability, researchers may use standard deviation (SD) to describe the variability within a distribution of scores. Variance is the square of the standard deviation and is used when conducting statistical analyses.
9
Q
Internal validity refers to :
A
the degree to which external influences have been controlled. There are many threats to internal validity, including differences between subjects, unreliable instruments, maturation, attrition, experimenter bias, and statistical regression. Ecological validity refers to the extent to which study results can be generalized to another setting and is an example of external, not internal, validity.
10
Q
A distribution of scores can be examined using three types of measures:
A
mean, median, and mode
11
Q
Mean refers to:
A
the average of a list of scores
12
Q
Median is:
A
the middle score on a distribution of scores
13
Q
Mode is:
A
the most frequent score in a distribution of scores.
14
Q
The mean, median, and mode are identical when:
A
distribution is symmetrical
15
Q
Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) was founded in:
A
1981
16
Q
Proportional stratified sampling is:
A
when the proportion of subjects randomly sampled from a certain group reflects the proportion of the group in the general population.
17
Q
External validity is:
A
the degree to which study results can be applied to populations outside of the study.
18
Q
The American Association of State Counseling Boards (AASCB) is an organization that:
A
assists licensed counselors moving from one state to another.
19
Q
Formative evaluation is:
A
the process of gathering information about how well a new intervention works, and collects information over a period of time.
20
Q
Summative evaluation:
A
by contrast, is typically a summary of how well an intervention has worked and isconducted over a shorter period of time.
21
Q
Experimenter bias is:
A
one threat to internal validity and refers to times when subjects’ responses are influenced by researchers for a variety of reasons.
22
Q
Exceptions to Group Confidentiality:
A
Confidentiality is difficult to ensure in group counseling, though all members should be aware that information shared in the group is confidential. Exceptions to this rule include times when group counselors are concerned someone (not always a group member) is in danger of hurting themselves or someone else.
23
Q
Heteroscedasticity:
A
refers to times when, for many different reasons, one end of a distribution of scores has more variability than the other end, resulting in a fan-like appearance.
24
Q
Homoscedasticity:
A
on the other hand, refers to times when scores are equally distributed throughout the range.
25
Neuroplasticity refers to:
the brain's specific ability to produce new neurons and reorganize itself.
26
Waiting time before re-administration of a test to a group?
two weeks
27
Qualitative research:
tends to study individual units in naturally occurring settings; research data is collected through observation; researchers' judgments and impressions are often used; it assumes that there are many different realities held by individuals and groups; it has the goal of describing the nature of things.
28
Quantitative research:
assumes there is one objective reality, studies samples or populations, uses statistical methods to compare results, and examines for causes and relationships.
29
Bell Curve distribution:
scores into six equal parts. Three of these parts are below the mean and three of these parts are above the mean. Sixty-eight percent (34% and 34%) comprise one standard deviation; 95% (13.5% and 13.5%) comprise two standard deviations; and 99% (2% and 2%) comprise three standard deviations.
30
Achievement tests are often reported in terms of:
age-equivalent scores. This means an individual who earns a score equivalent to 4.5 has correctly answered the same number of items that an average four-and-a-half-year-old answers. Grade-equivalent scores work similarly, in that if a student correctly answers the same number of items that an average 7th grader completes, that student receives a grade-equivalent score of 7.
31
Minimum sample size recommended for a survey?
is 100 people.
32
Informed consent is :
meant to serve as a clear way for the counselor to communicate their scope of practice, techniques, grievance procedures, and therapeutic approach with the client before treatment begins. Informed consent also includes detailed explanations of when a counselor might break confidentiality, and the process for releasing client information
33
First state to pass the first general practice counselor licensure law.
In 1976, Virginia
34
Standard deviation (SD) is a:
measure of variability and describes the variability within a distribution of scores. It is the mean of all the deviations from the mean, and is a popular measure of the dispersion of scores.
35
Internal consistency is :
the degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure, while also producing the same results each time.
36
Utilize both quantitative and qualitative research approaches in the same design.
Mixed-method research designs
37
Statistical regression refers to :
the tendency for a low-scoring or high-scoring test taker on the pretest to obtain a score closer to the mean on a posttest.
38
Is the research question that is to be answered:
hypothesis
39
Three types of hypothesis:
hypothesis can be null, directional, or nondirectional.
40
Null Hypothesis states that:
there are no effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable and therefore no differences in the control and test groups.
41
Directional hypotheses state that
the scores of one particular group will be significantly different than scores in another identified group.
42
Nondirectional hypotheses state that
there will be statistical differences between groups, but it is unclear which group's scores will be higher or lower.
43
A true experimental design uses :
experimental and control groups that are comprised of randomly assigned participants. Researchers who use experimental designs typically want to determine cause-and-effect relationships, like the relationship between test grades and a differently formatted seminar in this example.
44
This means that if a student correctly answers the same number of items that an average 7th grader completes, that student receives a ___ ___ score of 7.
grade-equivalent
45
Percentile Score:
Many standardized test results are given in percentiles, which are values below which a specified percentage of cases fall. A student who scores in the 80th percentile has scored higher than 79% of the scores.
46
A Type I error:
also known as an alpha error, refers to the researchers' rejection of the null hypothesis when it is correct. If the significance level is changed, such as .05 to .01, the probability of a Type I error changes as well.
47
The purpose of ____ research is to gather information about naturally occurring events and individuals' and groups' experiences.
qualitative
This is in contrast to quantitative research, which gathers finite data based on structured research designs. Qualitative research can be interactive, consisting of observation and/or interviewing, or noninteractive, occurring through document analysis.
48
Ethnography is:
a type of interactive research in which the researcher collects data through interviews and observations about a group or system. It is important for researchers to be particularly sensitive about the impact of observer bias in ethnography, as bias can affect the observer's interactions with and responses to the individuals he or she is observing or contacting.
49
Longitudinal research is:
useful in collecting data on the same group of participants over a long period of time. While longitudinal data obviously takes longer to compile than information obtained through other types of research, it can be helpful when trying to understand the impact of interventions on individuals over a long period of time.
50
Deception refers to:
times when subjects are unaware that a certain type of information is being gathered, and is justifiable if there is no risk to the subjects.
51
Is similar to other management positions in that it requires a specialized set of skills. These include strategic planning, which refers to assessment of the current state of the program and how it might look different in the future; program design and development; budgeting; personnel management; supervision; evaluation; and marketing and public relations.
Counseling program management
52
Informed consent:
includes the rights and expectations of group members, as well as what group members can expect from the counselor and the group as a whole. The counselor should speak individually with each group member before the group begins to answer questions and ensure that the member understands.
53
Type II error:
also known as beta error, refers to researchers' failure to reject the null hypothesis when there is a difference between groups. Researchers can change the significance level to change the probability of Type I and Type II errors occurring. If the significance level goes down, Type I error decreases, though Type II error increases.
54
Response rate of surveys is:
typically below 50 percent.
55
Comparative research:
examines differences between two groups.
56
Qualitative research is :
any type of descriptive research based on observation and the researchers' judgments.
57
Experimental designs:
use experimental and control groups along with random sampling at times to determine cause-and-effect relationships.
58
Who should have access to research data:
Only researchers and research assistants gathering data should have access to information obtained on subjects during the study. Information gathered during studies should only be released to others with the written consent of the subjects.
59
"Title-control" means:
that anyone can practice counseling but cannot legally advertise using the title, such as Licensed Professional Counselor, unless they are licensed.
60
Social justice counseling:
addresses issues of unequal power, seeks a balance of power and resources, and focuses on unearned privilege and oppression.
61
Malpractice is:
the failure to provide services at a level that would be expected of a professional in similar circumstances.
62
Four conditions must be met for malpractice in a court of law:
a professional relationship must have been established; there must have been a breach of duty; the client must have suffered injury, physical or psychological; and the injury must have been caused by a breach of duty. A counselor can be sued with or without professional liability insurance.
63
If a study has a reliability coefficient of .70 or higher:
the instrument can be considered reliable.
64
Physician-assisted suicide is an:
ethical issue about which many health care workers disagree. As of 2015, five states (Oregon, Washington, Montana, New Mexico, and Vermont) allow physician-assisted suicide, provided the individual has a terminal illness. In these states (only in one county in New Mexico), physicians are legally permitted to prescribe medications to cause death.
65
MPCAC as an alternative to:
CACREP
66
Cross-sectional research is a:
specialized type of research that consists of gathering data from several different groups and then comparing the differences.
67
Split-half reliability is:
calculated by randomly splitting a list of questions into sets, then finding the correlation between the two. If there is a high correlation between the two sets, the measure is said to have high split-half reliability.
68
Parallel-forms reliability is :
similar in that two separate sets of questions are administered, but the questions on each form of the assessment are not chosen randomly.
69
Inter-rater reliability:
is the degree to which different raters score the same responses and behaviors in the same way.
70
Test-retest reliability is:
the degree to which scores are the same when the same measure is given to the same subjects twice
71
Nominal data refers to
numbers that represent categories or qualities of the variable, such as race, gender, and age. Nonparametric statistical measures, which are often used with descriptive data, should be used with nominal data.
72
When a research study is funded partly or fully by federal sources, it must be:
approved by an Institutional Review Board (IRB), sometimes known as a Human Subjects Committee. The duty of the IRB is to review the study's methods to ensure they are ethical.
73
Bans sex discrimination in K-12 schools and colleges.
Title IX was passed in 1972
While Title IX technically applies to both academics and athletics, the focus has mostly been on giving women equal opportunities with men in sports, and giving women the same proportion of participation in athletic opportunities as men have.
74
An ex post facto research design:
An ex post facto research design, also known as a causal-comparative design, is a non-experimental quantitative design that examines variables after the fact (ex post facto). The researcher can then draw several conclusions about why these relationships occur. The analysis of variance and the t-test are frequently used in ex post facto designs.
75
CACREP was established in:
1981
76
ACA Ethics regard sex with client:
ACA Code of Ethics specifies that sexual contact may not necessarily be unethical if it occurs more than five years after the counseling relationship ends.
77
CACREP also accredits only:
one doctoral program, counselor education and supervision.
78
Standardized scores express the person's distance from:
the mean, not the median, in terms of the standard deviation from that standard score distribution.
79
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), which is:
federal legislation that sets standards for protecting the privacy of patient information. While clients are allowed to access their own records and request changes, counselors must have a release form signed by the client (or the client's guardian, if under age 18) before the record is shared with others.
80
Sampling:
which refers to the selection of subjects from a part of the population
81
Cluster sampling refers to :
samples that are not individuals but are units of individuals in the same physical area that are selected randomly.
82
The National Defense Education Act:
was passed in 1958 and provided additional funding for public schools for a variety of purposes. There are ten titles within the law, and Title V includes funding for the training of guidance counselors along with the addition of standardized testing to identify academically gifted students.
83
Hawthorne effect:
This is the influence on performance that can occur when subjects know they are being observed, and it can greatly affect their responses. Researchers should pay attention to the reactivity of subjects to determine how greatly results are being affected.
84
Inferential statistics:
such as analysis of variance and the t-test, measure the probability of an event occurring in the population.
85
Descriptive statistics:
aim to describe the data that is collected and include means, percentages, and standard deviations.
86
Graduate students enrolled at an institution that is not accredited by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) become board eligible at:
graduation and must complete 3,000 hours of post-degree work experience.
87
Nonparametric statistics:
such as chi-square and the Mann-Whitney U test, are used when data is not normally distributed and variances are inconsistent.
88
Parametric statistics:
such as the t-test and analysis of variance, can be used when samples are randomly drawn from the population and results are distributed along a normal curve.
89
Interval Data:
the numbers on a scale have the same amount of the variable throughout the scale; for instance, degrees on the Fahrenheit temperature scale. Interval scales provide a constant and consistent unit of measurement.
90
Self-Awareness is:
the process of gaining insight into who you are. Self-Awareness is a characteristic of an effective helper. Self-aware helpers are conscious of their motivations, strengths, weakness, their emotions, limitations, and values and how they may consciously or sub-consciously influence a counseling relationship.
91
Consultation is the:
helping process in which a counselor works with one or more professionals who work with clients. The counselor role is to assist the professionals or consultees by helping to identify barriers, improve the client relationship or identify ways of providing more effective services to the client. The professionals being served by the consultant are the direct clients and the clients being serviced by the consultees are considered the indirect-clients.
92
When assessing competency to provide informed consent:
the focus needs to be on the client. The opinions of people who are important to the client may factor in to the client's decision to give informed consent, but another person's opinion is not something the counselor considers when assessing competency.
93
Counselor Objectivity:
Objectivity is a characteristic of an effective counselor. The ability to demonstrate objectivity means to be able to view the client or the situation without assigning any judgment or allowing external information to influence the counselor's perspective of the client. Objectivity is being able to view the client and counseling relationship as a blank slate so that conclusions can emerge naturally as the counseling relationship develops
94
Non-malfeasance:
is refraining from providing ineffective treatments or acting with malice towards a patient.
95
Under Americans with Disabilities Act, a service animal is defined as a:
dog that has been individually trained to do work or perform tasks for an individual with a disability. A difference between service animals and emotional support animals, in most cases, is that the emotional support animals have not been trained to perform a specific job as required under the ADA.
96
Termination is the:
gradual approach of moving towards the end of a therapeutic relationship. Termination takes places over a period of time. The time to begin the termination process is usually signaled by the fact that the client has reached their goals in counseling as well as gained a certain level of psychological understanding and growth. Termination can be hindered if an attachment has developed between the two parties.
97
Hindrance to Termination:
Attachment and dependency can pose a hindrance when it is time for the counselor and client to terminate the counseling relationship.
98
Gender-fair therapy is:
the counseling of women that addresses the impact of inappropriate sex-role stereotypes such as; women have lower self-esteem, women are more emotional, women are more fearful, timid and anxious, women are less aggressive than men. Gender-fair therapy realizes that there are no prescribed sex-role behaviors. There is a focus on a heightened awareness of one's personal identity or values as it pertains to the client's perception of their sex-roles. Gender-fair therapy understands that the reversal of traditional sex roles is not pathological and promotes an awareness that anatomical differences are not a basis for theories of behavior. The practice of gender-fair counseling includes the use of gender-fair language that does not reflect, assign or impose stereotypical sex or gender roles.
99
How big should children groups be?
Children's groups should be about half the size of adult groups.
100
How long should groups run time-wise?
Groups that run from 1-2 hours hold members' attention and allow for the most therapeutic benefit
101
What must you do if terminating client due to non-payment?
Therapists can terminate treatment if clients are not paying them. They still must provide appropriate referral, however.
102
What do you do if the client is not benefiting from counseling?
The ACA Code of Ethics states that if we find we are not helping clients, we should refer them to appropriate care. If they decline the referral, the therapist should discontinue the relationship
103
When is it ethical to have sexual relationship with client?
The necessary time between the end of a therapy relationship and dating an ex-client is five years, according to the ACA Code of Ethics. After this time frame, the counselor must give forethought as to whether the relationship can be exploitive or cause potential harm, and document this. If there is potential for harm or exploitation, the counselor should not enter into a relationship with a former client at any time
104
When is the client made aware of the need to break confidentiality?
ACA Code of Ethics, "At initiation and throughout the counseling process, counselors inform clients of the limitations of confidentiality and seek to identify foreseeable situations in which confidentiality must be breached".
105
When is written authorization required from client?
Written authorization is required in order for you to give any information, including a diagnosis, in order to receive payment from a third-party payor.
106
At what point does the client have a right to their records?
Clients do have a right to their records, and they should be offered to clients, as long as the counselor believes that viewing them will not be detrimental to the client.
107
What is the ACA stance when it comes to seeking consultation with colleagues?
The ACA Code of Ethics states that: "Counselors take reasonable steps to consult with other counselors or related professionals when they have questions regarding their ethical obligations or professional practice."
108
Ethical or unethical to recruit clients from you job to your private practice?
Recruiting or gaining clients, supervisees or consultees from a place of employment or an institution in which you work is unethical.
109
If your qualifications are misrepresented, you must do what?
When someone misrepresents your qualifications and credentials, you must correct them so whoever has received the erroneous information accurately understands your true credentials
110
What should you take into consideration when selling your own products? Books, cds, etc.
Counselors should not exert undue influence on clients to sell their own products.
111
As a counselor supervisor, when may you engage in sexual or romantic relationship?
Supervisors should avoid unprofessional relationships with supervisees. Sexual and romantic relationships are prohibited.
Unprofessional relationships between students and teachers should be avoided. Sexual relationships between counselor educators and students are prohibited. Ongoing professional relationships between students and counselor educators should also be avoided.
112
When can a counselor supervisor receive pay from a supervisee site?
According to the ACA Code of Ethics, "counselor educators do not accept any form of professional services, fees, commissions, reimbursement, or remuneration from a site for student or supervisee."
113
What are the rights of the client when participating in research, especially, when it comes to the right to withdrawal?
The ACA Code of Ethics states that counselors "Counselors conducting research involving clients make clear in the informed consent process that clients are free to choose whether or not to participate in research activities. Counselors take necessary precautions to protect clients from adverse consequences of declining or withdrawing from participation. Clients are free to withdrawal from research at any time!
114
What is the policy regarding submission of research papers etc. to multiple peer review journals?
Simultaneous submissions are unethical. If a research manuscript is published elsewhere, once published, parts of it may be published elsewhere, but the original publisher must be credited.
115
Where does ULTIMATE responsibility fall in the context of research?
The ACA Code of Ethics states, "The ultimate responsibility for ethical research practice lies with the principal researcher. All others involved in the research activities share ethical obligations and responsibility for their own actions."
116
What is the ACA stance when it comes to counseling student who are not meeting counselor competencies while under supervision?
According to the ACA Code of Ethics, counselor educators are aware that not all students will develop the competency necessary to practice counseling. Such students should be made aware and a remedial plan developed with the active participation of the students, the educator and with input from colleagues.
117
What is the ACA stance on social media?
The American Counseling Association revised its Ethics in 2014 to include a section on social media. H.6.a states that, "counselors wishing to use social media, separate personal and professional web pages and profiles should be created to clearly distinguish between the two forms of virtual presence."
118
The slippery slope phenomenon occurs in counseling when:
a counselor has not clearly defined his or her boundaries and can often occur when a counselor is attempting to blend roles (teacher/counselor, mentor/coach, sponsor/counselor).
119
Privilege:
is a legal rule that protects communications within certain relationships from compelled disclosure in a court proceeding. The legal rule states that the person with the privilege, usually the client, owns the privilege and has the right to decide if and when the information is shared.
120
Confidentiality generally describes:
a duty to protect client information outside the courtroom. A privilege generally describes a right, held by the client, that is applicable in a legal proceeding.
121
Risks of group therapy?
Risks of group therapy include the potential breach of confidentiality, challenges with termination, and ineffective leadership around challenging group roles like the scapegoat.
122
HIPAA?
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act provides requirements and guidelines to all healthcare providers regarding the storage of medical records, both paper and electronic, the release of information and the sharing of electronic data, among other things.
123
The Tarasoff case was the beginning of:
the Duty to Warn/Duty to Protect cases. It was decided in 1976 by the Supreme Court of California. The ruling was that counselors have a duty to take reasonable care to protect the intended victim.
124
Bradley Center case:
he hospital's duty to protect was breached by the negligent release of a dangerous patient who subsequently carried out his threat to kill a readily identifiable person. In the Bradley Center case, the hospital's duty to protect was breached by the negligent release of a dangerous patient who subsequently carried out his threat to kill a readily identifiable person. The ruling determined that the mental health professionals had a duty to ensure that a dangerous person was not released.
125
Jablonski case :
addressed the need for mental health professionals to consult prior records to determine dangerousness
126
Mandatory ethics:
are the first level of ethical functioning and focus on the law.
127
Principle ethics are:
more morally driven and attempt to solve a specific dilemma.
128
Aspirational Ethics:
The highest level, which require an abstract understanding of the spirit or meaning behind an ethical code.
129
Hedlund case :
addressed that duty to warn extends beyond the named victim to anyone else who might reasonably be at risk (in the actual case, it was the victim's child).
130
Autonomy is:
fostering the right to control the direction of one's life.
131
Beneficence is :
"working for the good of the individual and society by promoting mental health and well-being."
132
Fidelity is:
"honoring commitments and keeping promises," while veracity stands for "dealing truthfully with individuals with whom counselors come into professional contact."
133
What is the ACA involvement when it comes to individual state licensure?
the ACA does not get involved in the licensure and certification process of any state. State laws, which in some cases are guided by codes of ethics, determine which counselors should be removed from practice.
134
42 CFR, part II was created:
out of an understanding that stigma and fear of prosecution might dissuade persons with substance use disorders from seeking treatment. To add an extra layer of protection on these records, the regulations outline under what limited circumstances information about a patient's treatment may be disclosed with and without the patient's consent. Healthcare Reform had nothing to do with special protections for confidentiality. HIPAA is the general standard for privacy and confidentiality, but 42 CFR has special coverage for substance use disorders. 42 CFR Part I is the general health standards for public health service, including OSHA.
135
Liability of counselor supervisors?
Counselor supervisors have direct liability, or liability for their direct actions, and vicarious liability, or liability for the actions taken by their supervisees. Professional malpractice insurance protects counselors and counselor supervisors from personal liability.
136
CACREP stands for :
the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Education Programs.
137
The difference between a professional counselor and a social worker is :
that a social worker is trained to focus on how social problems and issues within a person's environment cause psychological problems and impairments. Social workers address these problems by diagnosing and treating clients within a social context.
138
NBCC stands for the:
National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC). The NBCC is a not-for-profit, independent certification organization established in 1982. The NBCC is a widely recognized national certification board which offers qualified professional counselors certification credentials and permission to hold the title of Nationally Certified Counselor (NCC) or Master Addictions Counselor (MAC) or Certified Clinical Mental Health Counselor (CCMHC).
139
Nonmaleficence means to:
"do no harm."
140
Self-determination is:
the client's right to autonomy, to make decisions about their own life without the influence from outside sources. The counselor must believe that the client is expert on their own life and resist the desire to impose his or her values on the client even if they are in the client's best interest.
141
Defamation is the act of:
divulging communication or information that has the potential to damage or harm someone's reputation. If the f they are in writing, it is considered libel.
142
Defamation made verbally is considered?
slander
143
Defamation made in writing is considered?
libel
144
Informed consent is :
explaining to clients everything that they can expect from counseling services. Before counseling begins the client voluntarily agrees to the conditions of services which include the benefits, risks, limitations, fees, dates, time, locations, etc. If the client is a minor then the parent or legal guardian must voluntarily agree and consent to services.
145
Duty to warn means:
that if a client presents as a threat of violence or as an imminent risk of danger to him or herself or others, then the counselor must take action to contact the proper authorities to prevent harm from occurring to the client or the parties identified by the client.
146
A dual relationship is when :
the counselor is simultaneously engaged in a counseling relationship as well as some other relationship with that same client at the same time. Dual relationships can be potentially harmful to the client because it becomes difficult for the counselor to remain objective in both roles and it impedes the client's right to autonomy. Sometimes dual relationships are difficult to avoid and can be managed with strong boundaries. A good rule of thumb is to avoid them all together if possible
147
If the counselor does not have sufficient time to properly terminate her services with her clients, the counselor may face the ethical issue of:
Abandonment. If the counselor cannot properly terminate her services, the counselor would be abandoning the client and possibly doing harm to clients who already struggle with abandonment or trust issues or who are in the middle of doing important emotional work. It is the counselor's responsibility to provide clients with proper termination services including the opportunity to process the relationship coming to an end as well as the counselor being able to provide the client with alternative services or referral to other counseling services.
148
External validity refers to :
the extent to which researchers can generalize their findings from a research study to real world settings.
149
Test-retest reliability has to do with:
the same people taking the same test and having similar results.
150
Item difficulty index is determined by:
taking the number of test takers and dividing it by the number of correct answers for an item. In this example, 5 people took the test, 5 people answered correctly for each item, giving those 5 items an index of 1.0.
151
The idea of using research to determine correlations and causations dates back to :
Aristotle. 400BC
152
Discussed the use of a major premise, a related minor premise and an obvious conclusion as a part of deductive reasoning
Aristotle
153
Syllogism:
Knowledge can be gained from a particular relationship by following downward from general to specific. An instance of a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn (whether validly or not) from two given or assumed propositions (premises), each of which shares a term with the conclusion, and shares a common or middle term not present in the conclusion
154
Inductive Reasoning:
moves from specific instances into a generalized conclusion
155
Deductive Reasoning:
moves from generalized principles that are known to be true to a true and specific conclusion
156
Intervening variables are:
variables that may alter the outcome of a research experiment. They are difficult to control for. Other examples include motivation and boredom.
157
Independent Variable is:
the variable that is manipulated, i.e. changing doses in this case.
158
Quantitative research involves being:
very objective, creating controls and comparing the experimental group with the control group in order to conclude something.
159
Qualitative research studies:
relationships and patterns and often uses interviews and observations as tools, thus subjectivity is expected.
160
A null hypothesis:
refutes any difference between an experimental and a control group.
161
An experimental hypothesis:
hypothesizes a difference between the two
162
Having a probability level of 0.05 means:
that there is a five percent chance that the differences between the control and experimental groups are due to chance.
163
If your probability value is less than:
0.05, it is said to be "statistically significant."
164
Type I (alpha) errors occur when:
the level of error is set too high. Conversely,
165
Type II (beta)errors can occur if:
the level of error is lowered.
166
Type 1 and Type 2 errors:
Type 1 error is also known as an alpha error and a type 2 error is known as a beta error. Both involve the null hypothesis. Type 1 errors reject the null when it is true. Type 2 errors accept the null when it is false. The most common probability of making a Type 1 error is .05. If the researcher rejects the null hypothesis, he will be making an error 5% of the time.
167
What type of variables make research results invalid?
Confounding and extraneous variables make research results invalid.
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Correlations reveal:
a relationship between two variables. With correlation, there is no manipulation of the independent variables. The variables are merely measured.
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Positive correlation exists when:
both variables move in the same direction
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Negative correlation occurs when:
variables are inversely related, and one variable moves in one direction with the second variable moving in the opposite direction.
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A nominal variable is a type of variable that:
is used to name, label or categorize particular attributes that are being measured.(example of nominal variable would be race, gender, color, city)
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Mean:
The mean is calculated by adding all values, and then dividing by the total number of values. In this case the mean is 40. Is also an average
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Range:
The range is found by subtracting the lowest value (or 29) from the highest value (or 50), and 50-29= 21.
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Mode:
The mode is the value that is most frequent in the set.
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The median is the:
middle score of a set of values, so if you have the following set of numbers 1, 4, 12, the median (middle ranking) number is 4. The mean or average would be derived by adding all the numbers up and dividing by the total number of numerals. In the case of this example 1, 4, 12, the mean or average is 1 + 4 + 12 = 17 divided by 3 = 5.67 or 6 when rounded up
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In a normal distribution:
68.26% of the scores will fall within one standard deviation of the mean and 95.44% will fall within two standard deviations of the mean.
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Variance is :
standard deviation squared, and standard deviation is the square root of variance
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The A z score or standard deviation:
describes how much a score deviates from the mean.
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ANOVA refers to:
a one-way analysis.
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MANOVA refers to:
a two-way ANOVA.
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Double-blind study:
Both parties are blind; neither knows. Example: neither party know who is getting a placebo
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Single-blind study:
one party (usually the researcher) knows what treatment the research subject is receiving
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Hawthorne effect occurs:
because a research subject knows he is a part of a research experiment.
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Rosenthal effect occurs when:
the researcher has an expectation, which affects the research outcome.
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The smaller the sample size:
the more chance it has of not accurately representing the entire population.
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A positively-skewed distribution occurs when:
there is a grouping on the left of the scale, and the 'tail' points right, in a positive direction.
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A negatively-skewed distribution has its 'tail' pointing:
left
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A correlation between two variables does not :
prove a cause-and-effect relationship.
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The independent variable is the :
variable that is manipulated
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The dependent variable:
is the one that is measured
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The ______ is the variable that is manipulated and the ______ is the one that is measured:
independent variable, dependent variable
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The median is the:
middle number of the data set, when in numerical order.
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The Pearson r:
is the most common correlation coefficient.
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The Spearman g is an:
intelligence measure.
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The Spearman rho is used for:
ordinal data measures.
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Nominal scales can provide :
labels only.
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Most scores fall within:
3 standard deviations. Sixty-eight percent of scores will fall within 1 standard deviation and 95% of scores fall within 2 standard deviations. Ninety-nine percent of scores will fall within 3 standard deviations.
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Range is not a measure of:
central tendency; it is a measure of variability, along with standard deviation.
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What are the measures of central tendency:
Mean, median and mode are the measures of central tendency
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Halo-Effect:
this is the tendency for the observer (researcher or data collector) to form an early impression of the person being observed and then letting this impression influence observations or ratings of that individual
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A cross-sectional study looks at:
multiple people of differing ages at once.
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A longitudinal study follows the:
same group of people over time. Both are types of developmental research.
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Cluster sampling is:
used to in situations when it is not possible to find a list of all possible participants.
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Quota sampling is used:
a specific number of cases is necessary and random sampling allows that each member of the population has equal chance of being included in the study.
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The ______ is plotted on the x-axis and the ______ is plotted on the y-axis.
independent variable, dependent variable
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The mode will always be the:
highest plot on the graph as it is the most frequently repeated number in the plot
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Psychological research is theoretic in nature and is used to gain:
knowledge and understanding about a subject or individuals, groups, or populations. Research is the attempt to establish facts and or to reach a conclusion about something in a scientific or systematic manner. Research is the act and method of studying something as objectively, consistently, thoroughly and systematically as possible in order to increase knowledge or understanding of phenomena or behavior. The purpose of research is to gain awareness, knowledge and understanding. Psychological research does not necessarily serve as a treatment or a solution to resolve a problem.
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A hypothesis is an:
educated guess or proposed explanation based on limited evidence to explain phenomena. A hypothesis is a catalyst to further research or experimentation in order to test the hypothesis.
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Sample population is the:
population or group of interest that the researchers want to study. A sample is a representation of the population but just in a smaller size since it would be impossible to sample an entire population. The sample group is not as large as the entire population but still should be a pretty good representation of the group that the researchers are interested in studying.
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A population is a:
group of people that researchers are testing the theory about or making assumption about.
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Two types of statistics:
descriptive and inferential.
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Descriptive statistics are:
used to describe the group that is being studied.
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Inferential statistics are techniques that:
allow us to make generalizations or inferences about a population by analyzing or observing a sample of that population.
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Analysis of Variance or an ANOVA is a technique that allows:
a researcher to study more than two populations at a time. Where inference statistics allow a researcher to compare two populations, that same procedure cannot be applied to the study of three or more populations. The researcher would have to use ANOVA if they want to make multiple comparisons.
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The null hypothesis is an:
essential part of any research design and is always meant to be tested whether directly or indirectly. It is when the researcher rejects or attempts to disprove or "nullify" a hypothesis. The null hypothesis is all about the prediction of a relationship between the variables. A null hypothesis predicts the absence of relationship between the variables (video games and violent attitudes). A researcher cannot reject a hypothesis without replacing it with an alternative hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis is what the researcher really believes might be going on
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The alternative hypothesis states:
an actual expectation. It is what the researcher is attempting to demonstrate in an indirect way. If the null hypothesis is rejected, then the alternative hypothesis is accepted.
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Correlational research is the:
study of how two or more things are closely related to each other or how one thing causes the other. A correlation is the relationship between two variables
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An experiment will usually have three kinds of variables:
independent, dependent and controlled variables.
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The independent variable is:
controlled and manipulated by the researcher;
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The dependent variable is the:
variable that is being measured in the experiment
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The controlled variable is the:
variable that remains constant during the experiment.
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An operational value refers to:
how the researcher will define and measure the specific value used in the study.
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Median is to middle as:
mode is to most. The median is the middle score in a distribution of scores. Mode is the concentration of the most frequent scores in a distribution
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The mean, median, and mode is the:
Central Tendency
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Psychogenic, which means the:
results that the subjects report experiencing whether they were positive from the placebo or negative from the nocebo were caused not by the fake treatment or substance administered but by the psychological state of the subject.
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Before a researcher can conduct research or experiments on human subjects the researcher must obtain permission from:
an Institutional Review Board (IRB). An IRB or an Independent Ethics Committee or a Research Ethics Board, is a committee who is responsible for approving, monitoring and reviewing any social science research that involve human beings. The IRB will conduct a risk-benefit analysis of the proposed research in order to determine whether or not the research is appropriate and can move forward. The purpose of the IRB or Ethics Board is to review the process in order to assure that during the entire time of the research, the rights and welfare of all human participants are protected
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Parsimony:
In research, researchers strive to achieve the easiest, simplest and least complicated explanations of their research findings.
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What should a research article indicate:
Research articles should include enough detail for future researchers to be able to replicate the experimental procedures recorded in the original journals.
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The best way to prove the validity of research is to:
replicate the study. If the replicated study yields the same results as the original study, it can be concluded that the original research was valid.
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Normal distribution means that:
most of the data falls within the range of average within the bell curve and the remaining data will fall within the above average range or within the below average range.
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The standard deviation is an indication of how:
tightly data is clustered around the mean or "average" set of data in a bell curve. In a bell curve, if most of the data represents a normal distribution and are tightly bunched together the bell curve is steep and the standard deviation (or distance between) is relative small. If the data is more spread out and the bell curve is flat, that means that the standard deviation (distance between) is relatively large. A large standard of deviation means that your data probably includes a wide range of values
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Construct validity ensures that :
the actual research, experiment, or data collection process conforms to theory that is actually being studied. It is important that the researcher creates a questionnaire that is directly related to theory or the topic being researched.
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Unsystematic errors in the instrument are:
unexpected or unknown influences that affect or vary results. This is the reason why most test manuals insist that directions are followed exactly the way they are written or prescribed so that everyone taking the test has the same understanding and interpretation to reduce the likelihood of error variance.
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Reliability is a pre-requisite to:
test validity. If a test has too many unsystematic errors then it will not be able to measure anything consistently.
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Validity tells how well the:
test does the job. Does the instrument (scale) measure what it is intended to measure? Researchers are always going to be concerned with the test instrument's reliability and the test instrument's validity.
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When a test reflects concurrent validity there is:
no time lag in prediction results. The results are produced immediately or can be interpreted in the here and now.
