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Psychology > Processes of Memory > Flashcards

Processes of Memory Flashcards

1
Q

What is encoding

A

changing information so that it can be stored in the brain.

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2
Q

Types of encoding

A 
Visual
Accoustic
Semantic
Tactile
Olfactory
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3
Q

Name 3 types of retrieval

A

Recognition
Cued recall
Free recall

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4
Q

In terms of retrieval define recognition

A

identifying something previously learned from a number of options

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5
Q

In terms of retrieval define cued recall

A

being given a clue to aid retrieval

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6
Q

In terms of retrieval define free recall

A

remembering something without any clue

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7
Q

Name a study of encoding

A

Baddeley

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8
Q

Baddeley encoding, aim

A

To see if there was any difference in the encoding used in STM and LTM

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9
Q

Baddeley, encoding method

A 
four groups each given 12 sets of 5 words to remember.
A = similar sounding words
B = dissimar sounding words
C= words with similar meaning
D= words with dissimilar meanings

A and B had to recall the words immediately (testing STM)
C and D after 20 mins (testing LTM)

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10
Q

Baddeley encoding: Results

A

A recalled less that B therefore words with similar sounds where more poorly recalled that dissimular words. Acoustic encoding

C recalled less words that D: LTM words with similar meanings more poorly recalled that those with dissimilar meanings. Semantic encoding

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11
Q

The conclusion of Baddeleys encoding experiment

A

STM encoded by sound / LTM by meaning

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12
Q

Baddeley, encoding, evaluation

A

+ well designed lab experiment, ev’s controlled. ie hearing controlled by participants being give a hearing test.

  • STM encoding doesn’t always involve sound: study by Brandimonte et al used pictures instead of words so visual encoding is used. So information into STM not always acoustic.
  • is 20 mins really evidence of LTM, so lack of validity that LTM codes semantically?
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13
Q

Name three types of LTM memory

A

Episodic
Semantic
Procedural

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14
Q

Define LTM

A

Memories that last a week, month, year, lifetime.

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15
Q

Define Episodic Memory

A

Recalling an event that happened in your life.

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16
Q

Define Semantic memory

A

Knowing what something is or means.

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17
Q

Define Procedural memory

A

How to do something.

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18
Q

What are declarative memories

A

Episodic/semantic because they need conscious recall.

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19
Q

What are non-declarative memories

A

Procedural memory, activities that are automatic.

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20
Q

LTM, brain scans, Clive Wearing and HK and are semantic and episodic memories stored competely differenty?

A

+brain scans show different show that different types of LTM are located in different parts of the brain.

+ study of people with amnesia such as Clive Wearing and HM, they only loose some memory function

  • It’s not that simple, no clear difference between episodic and semantic, most memories are a fusion.
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21
Q

What happened to Clive Wearing and what did this affect.

A

Following an infection in his brain he lost most of his episodic memory but not his procedural as he could still play the piano and conduct a choir.

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22
Q

What happened to HM and what did this affect

A

Severe epilepsy so had his hippocampus removed.
Catastrophic memory loss, He could remember how to do things but not things from his past. He couldn’t learn new facts, faces or places.

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23
Q

Where in the brain are episodic memories stored

A

right prefrontal cortex

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24
Q

Where in the brain are semantic memories stored

A

left prefrontal cortex

25
Q

Where in the brain are procedural memories stored

A

Motor area at the back of the prefrontal cortex

26
Q

What is the multi-store model and who developed it

A

Three memory Stores; Sensory register - STM - (rehearsal) - LTM
(maintenance rehearsal loop STM - LTM).

Richard Atkinson & Richard Shiffrin

27
Q

Short Term Memory (Coding, capacity and duration)

A

Coding tends to be accoustic
Capacity on average 5-9 pieces of information
Duration less than 30 seconds unless rehearsed.

28
Q

Long Term Memory (Coding, capacity and duration)

A

Coding semantic
Capacity potentially unlimited
Duration potentially up to a lifetime

29
Q

Sensory Memory(Coding, capacity and duration)

A

Coding is related to the sense organs (eye visual, sound accoustic etc)
Large capacity but short duration
Paying attention transfers it to STM

30
Q

Evaluation of Atkinson and Shiffrin Multi-Store model

A

+ supported different memory stores, ie Baddeley study of encoding show STM/LTM encode differenty.

  • Too simple, research shows that STM visual and Accoustic stores and LTM episodic, procedural, semantic. Memory more complex
  • Artificial material used, word lists, consonant syllables. Results do not reflect the different ways we use memory.
31
Q

Name a Study on Primacy and recency effects in recall

A

Murdock

32
Q

What is primacy in relation to recall

A

Words are the beginning of a list are remembered more because of rehearsal so are in LTM

33
Q

What is recency effect in relation to recall

A

Words at the end of a list are remembered in STM as they have only recently been heard.

34
Q

Murdock, Primacy and Recency. Aim, method, results, conclusion

A

Aim: to see if a serial position effect was influenced by the number of words on a list.

Method: 4000 common words chosen randomly.
Participants 103, psychology students, listened to 20 lists with 10-40 words on them.
Participants had to recall the words after each list.

Results: Recall not affected by the number of words in a list but related to the position in the list.
Murdock found higher recall for the first few words and last few words.

Conclusion: confirmed serial position effect. Support Multi-store Model.

35
Q

What does MSM stand for

A

Multi store model

36
Q

Murdock, Primacy and Recency, Avaluation

A

+Controlled study in a lab. Familiarity of words was the same on all the lists, speed they were read and ensured that practice was an EV.

  • artificial task. Lists of words so just one type of memory.

+ research on Amnesia supports the study. Carlesimo found that some people with amnesia can’t store LTM and do not show a primacy effect but do show a recency effect. Confirms that primacy is reltated to LTM

37
Q

Name Frederick Bartletts memory as an active process study

A

Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts

38
Q

Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts. Aim, method, results, conclusion

A

Aim: investigating how memory is reconstructed when people are asked to recall an unfamilar story.

Method: Participants (people from his uni, family and friends) shown the War of the Ghosts story. Then asked to recalled it after 15 mins, then weeks, then mnths and then years.

Results: Participants changed the story. Omitted information they were less familiar with. Story was shortened, phrases changed to those use in participant own culture.

Conclusion: We use our knowledge of social situations to reconstruct memory as details of the story where invented to improve meaning.

39
Q

Bartletts War of the Ghosts evaluation

A
  • Lack of control. Participants not told that accuate recall was important. Other studies have found that recall improves if participants know this.
  • Biased results, Barletts analysed the data, his own beliefs may of affected results.
    He believed that recall would be affected by cultural experiences so looked for this in his data.
  • The story was unusual so may not reflect our normal ability to remember stories. Therefore tells us little about every day memory.
40
Q

What is Bartlett’s the theory of reconstructive memory

A

Memory is an active process. People remember the overall meaning of the event and then reconstruct the memory. Effort after meaning.

41
Q

What are the four points of Bartlett’s theory of reconstructive memory.

A
  1. Memory is inaccurate.
  2. Reconstruction: Small pieces of memory put together to tell the whole story. Each time elements combined slightly differently.
  3. Social and cultural influence; recall based on our socal and cultural expecations and adapted to fit.
  4. Effort after meaning: Focus on the meaning and make an effort to understand the meaning to make sense of parts of a story.
42
Q

Evaluation of the Bartlett’s theory of reconstructive memory

A

+more realistic research: based on how we use memory in every day life which makes the findings more relevant.

  • Some memories are accurate and don’t need reconstructing.

+ Real world application esp with regard to Eye Witness Testimony. Memory affected by expectations. Now EWT no longer solely relied upon in court.

43
Q

Who conducted an experiment to see if interference effects memory

A

McGeoch and McDougal

44
Q

What does interference mean in relation to memory

A

if two memories compete then one may prevent us from accessing the other.

45
Q

McGeoch and McDougal, Memory / interference. Aim, Method, Result, Conclusion

A

Aim: To see if whether the accuracy of recalling a list of words was affected by a competing list of words.

Method: Participants learned a list of 10 words and then were shown a new list.

There were five different new lists: same meaning (synonyms), opposite meanings (antonyms), unrelated, nonsense syllables, three digits numbers, or no new list.

Results: When participants recalled the initial list of words, memory was affected by the new list.

Effect was strongest when the synonyms were used.

Conclusion: the second list interfered with the recall of the first. Interference is stronger when the information being recalled is similar.

46
Q

McGeoch and McDougal, Memory/interference. Evaluation

A

+ highly controlled. Counterbalancing used to control EV’s

  • Artificial task. Not reflective of real life so conclusion could be limited.
  • Not really forgetting, ie just not accessed because the correct clue has not been given so interference may only appear to cause inaccurate memory.
47
Q

Name a study on Accuracy of Memory, Context

A

Godden and Baddeley

48
Q

Godden and Baddeley, Accuracy of Memory, Context

Aim, method, results and conclusion

A

Aim: to see if context affected memory by using two settings, wet, underwater and on the beach.

Method: Divers listened and recalled words in the same or different settings. DD , WW or WD and DW.

Results: recall was highest in matching conditions and highest was DD

Conclusion; Context of learning acts as a trigger cue when trying to remember information and therefore improves the accuracy of memory.

49
Q

Godden and Baddeley, Accuracy of Memory, Context evaluation

A
  • Artificial task. List of words. Research with more complex material producted better recall irrelevant of context, so maybe context wasn’t as much of an affect as Godden and Baddeley thought.
  • Recall was short term very, unrealistic as recall was almost immediately. Does not translate to scenarios such as exams where gap between learning and recall longer. So results only reflect short term recall.
  • Similar context. We are unlikely to have to recall something in the same environment that we learned it. so limited real life application.
50
Q

Name a study on Factors affecting the accuracy of memory: False Memories

A

Loftus and Pickrell.

51
Q

What are false memories

A

Something you think happened but didn’t

52
Q

Loftus and Pickrell: Factors affecting the accuracy of Memory: False Memories. Aim, Method, Result, Conclusion

A

Aim: to see if false memories could be created in people by suggestion.

Method: Participants given four stories about their childhood, three true and one false (getting lost in a shopping mall was the false one).

The story was created with the help of a relative so that it sounded realistic.

Participants read each story and wrote what they remembered.

Results: 68% of the true episodes were remembered.
six out of 24 (25%) recalled the false story, fully or partially. The rest had no memory of it.

Conclusion: An imagined event can implant an false memory, reducing the accuracy of memory.

53
Q

Loftus and Pickrell: Factors affecting the accuracy of Memory: False Memories - Evaluation

A
  • Artificial task The false memory event not the same traumatic kind found in therapy. Hamless events might be implanted easily but traumatic events may not. So conclusions drawn abt false memories are limited.
  • Ethical issues. Participants were debriefed but may be left with false memories after the study, therefore psychological harm possible.

+ Real world application. Why EWT can be inadvertently manipulated during police questioning. So research has been beneficial in explaining why EWT may be unreliable.

54
Q

What study did Baddeley conduct

A

Encoding

55
Q

What model did Atkinson and Shiffrin produce

A

The Multi-storey model

56
Q

What study did Goddard and Baddeley do

A

Context/divers

57
Q

What study did Murdock do

A

Primacy and recency

58
Q

What study did McGeoch and Mcdougal do

A

Interference

Psychology (9 decks)

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