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Language and Memory > Problem Solving > Flashcards

Problem Solving Flashcards

1
Q

Why is a problem?

A

A problem is a thing or goal that one wants, but that is for some reason difficult to obtain.

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2
Q

What are the 2 basic types of problems?

A
  1. Well-defined problems

2. Ill-defined problems:

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3
Q

What are well-defined problems?

A

Problems in which the goal is well defined and thus easy to know or recognise after it has been obtained.

E.g., most math problems, how to tie your shoes, and to do well in this course, etc.

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4
Q

What are ill-defined problems?

A

Problems in which the goal is NOT well defined and thus NOT easy to recognise after it has been obtained

E.g., most real-life problems, such as whether or not (i.e., the benefits of) to attend university, choosing a right spouse, career, etc.

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5
Q

Historically, what are the 2 approaches psychologists have attempted to understand problem solving?

A
  1. Gestalt tradition

2. Cognitive tradition

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6
Q

What is Gestalt tradition towards understanding problem solving?

A

Attempting to understand problem solving as a process of restructuring/reorganising one’s understanding of a problem to have insight into its solution.

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7
Q

What is Cognitive tradition towards understanding problem solving?

A

Attempts to understand problem solving as a process of “moving” from the current mental state (in which the problem is unsolved) to some mental state that corresponds to (or represents) the problem’s solution.

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8
Q

Gestalt psychologists are interesting in understanding how people _______ problems.

A

Gestalt psychologists are interesting in understanding how people represent problems.

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9
Q

In Gestalt psychology, what are the 2 ways people represent problems?

A
  1. Restructuring

2. Insight

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10
Q

Gestalt psychology:

What is restructuring?

A

The process of changing how a problem is represented (e.g., the constraints on how the problem can be solved) to find a solution.

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11
Q

Gestalt psychology:

What is insight?

A

The sudden realisation of a problem’s solution, often after some incubation period during which the problem is not (consciously) thought about.

2 famous examples: Archimedes & Sultan

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12
Q

According to Gestalt tradition, what are the 2 reasons as to why problems are often difficult to solve?

A
  1. functional fixedness

2. negative set.

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13
Q

Gestalt psychology:

What is functional fixedness?

A

When a person’s conceptualisation of an object’s function of typical use inhibits the person’s capacity to use the object for different functions.

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14
Q

What was the hypothesis for Dunker’s (1945) candle problem?

A

Does a person’s mental set (one’s conceptualisation of objects and their uses) results in functional fixedness?

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15
Q

What was the method for Dunker’s (1945) candle problem?

A

The test presented the participant with the following task:

How to fix and light a candle on a wall (a cork board) in a way so the candle wax won’t drip onto the table below.

To do so, one may only use the following along with the candle:

  1. a box of matches
  2. a box of thumbtacks
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16
Q

What were the 2 conditions for Dunker’s (1945) candle problem?

A
  1. Tacks were placed in the box

2. Tacks were placed outside the box.

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17
Q

What was the solution for Dunker’s (1945) candle problem?

A

The solution is to empty the box of thumbtacks, put the candle into the box, use the thumbtacks to nail the box (with the candle in it) to the wall, and light the candle with the match.

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18
Q

What did the concept of functional fixedness predict for Dunker’s (1945) candle problem?

A

The concept of functional fixedness predicts that the participant will only see the box as a device to hold the thumbtacks and not immediately perceive it as a separate and functional component available to be used in solving the task.

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19
Q

What were the results for Dunker’s (1945) candle problem?

A

Subjects in condition 2 were more likely to use the thumbtacks to mount of the box to the wall, and then place the candle on the box (i.e., to use the box as a shelf).

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20
Q

What were the results for Dunker’s (1945) candle problem?

A

Functional fixedness is a cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used.

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21
Q

The concept of ________ fixedness originated in Gestalt Psychology, a movement in psychology that emphasises _____ processing.

A

The concept of functional fixedness originated in Gestalt Psychology, a movement in psychology that emphasises holistic processing.

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22
Q

Karl Duncker defined functional _______ as being a “_____ block against using an object in a ____ way that is required to solve a _______.”

This “block” limits the ability of an individual to use ________ given to them to complete a task, as they cannot move past the original _______ of those ________.

A

Karl Duncker defined functional fixedness as being a “mental block against using an object in a new way that is required to solve a problem.”

This “block” limits the ability of an individual to use components given to them to complete a task, as they cannot move past the original purpose of those components.

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23
Q

What was Abraham Luchins (1942) The Water Jar Test, used to explain?

A

Negative sets.

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24
Q

What was the method used in Abraham Luchins, The Water Jar Test?

A

Participants were given the following problem: you have 3 water jars, each with the capacity to hold a different, fixed amount of water; figure out how to measure a certain amount of water using these jars.

Subjects were divided into two groups.

  1. Experimental
  2. Control

All of the practice problems and some of the critical problems had only one solution.

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25
Q

What did the experimental group do in Abraham Luchins, The Water Jar Test?

A

The experimental group: was given five practice problems, followed by 4 critical test problems.

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26
Q

What did the control group do in Abraham Luchins, The Water Jar Test?

A

The control group: didn’t have the five practice problems.

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27
Q

What was one of the critical problems called in Abraham Luchins, The Water Jar Test?

A

The extinction problem.

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28
Q

What was the extinction problem in Abraham Luchins, The Water Jar Test?

A

The extinction problem was a problem that could not be solved using the previous solutions.

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29
Q

What did participants have to do in order to answer the extinction problem correctly in Abraham Luchins, The Water Jar Test?

A

In order to answer the extinction problem correctly, one had to solve the problem directly and generate a novel solution.

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30
Q

What did an incorrect solution to the extinction problem indicate in Abraham Luchins, The Water Jar Test?

A

An incorrect solution to the extinction problem indicated the presence of the Einstellung effect.

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31
Q

Who many possible solutions were there to problems after the extinction problem in Abraham Luchins, The Water Jar Test?

A

2

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32
Q

What did post-extinction problems helped determine in Abraham Luchins, The Water Jar Test?

A

These post-extinction problems helped determine the recovery of the subjects from the Einstellung effect.

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33
Q

What were the results in Abraham Luchins, The Water Jar Test?

A

Subjects used methods that they had used previously to find the solution even though there were quicker and more efficient methods available.

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34
Q

What were the results for the experimental group in Abraham Luchins, The Water Jar Test?

A

Most subjects from the experimental group preferred to use the previous method.

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35
Q

What were the results for the control group in Abraham Luchins, The Water Jar Test?

A

Virtually all of the control group used the simpler solution.

36
Q

The results of Abraham Luchins, The Water Jar Test, illustrates the concept of ________. The majority of the experimental subjects adopted a ________ state of mind and relied on mental ____ formed through previous experience. However, the _________ subjects would have been more efficient if they had employed the _____ method of solving the problem rather than applying the _____ solution from ________ examples.

A

The results of Abraham Luchins, The Water Jar Test, illustrates the concept of Einstellung. The majority of the experimental subjects adopted a mechanised state of mind and relied on mental sets formed through previous experience. However, the experimental subjects would have been more efficient if they had employed the direct method of solving the problem rather than applying the same solution from previous examples.

37
Q

What is the main conclusion in Abraham Luchins, The Water Jar Test?

A

The experiment shines light on how mental sets can hinder the solving of novel problems.

38
Q

What did Metcalfe & Wiebe (1987) hypothesise, in their Restructuring of the “Aha!” experience?

A

Are insight problems qualitatively different from non-insight problems, with the former being associated with an “Aha!” experiment when the solution is suddenly realised?

This experience should reflect the restructuring of how a problem is represented, which then leads to insight into it’s solution.

39
Q

What was the method used in Metcalfe & Wiebe’s “Aha!” experiment?

A

Subjects solved 2 types of problems, then were prompted every 15 seconds to indicate how close they were to solving the problems (i.e., to indicate their “feeling of warmth”).

40
Q

What were the 2 types of problems used in Metcalfe & Wiebe’s “Aha!” experiment?

A
  1. Standard, non-insight problems:
    E.g. algebra problems; e.g., x / 2 – 2 = 14; solve for x
  2. Insight problems
    E.g., the problem used in the previous example
41
Q

What were the results for each of the 2 conditions in Metcalfe & Wiebe’s “Aha!” experiment?

A
  1. Insight problems solved suddenly - “aha”

2. Non-insight problems solved gradually

42
Q

What was the main conclusion for Metcalfe & Wiebe’s “Aha!” experiment?

A

Sudden realisation of a problem’s solution = Insight problems solved suddenly (“Aha!”)

43
Q

What is The Cognitive Tradition?

A

The cognitive tradition has as its core the idea of the problem space Example: The Tower of Hanoi problem (Simon & Newell, 1972)

44
Q

The Cognitive Tradition:

What is the problem space comprised of?

1.
2.
3.
4.

A
  1. The start state,
  2. The end (goal) state,
  3. All intermediate states,
  4. All possible (legal) moves.
45
Q

The Cognitive Tradition:

What is the start state?

A

The initial configuration of disks

46
Q

The Cognitive Tradition:

What is the end (goal) state?

A

The desired configuration of disks.

47
Q

The Cognitive Tradition:

What are operators?

A

The “rules” that are allowed to solve the problem:

48
Q

The Cognitive Tradition:

What are the 3 possible (legal) moves?

A
  1. Can move 1 disk at a time.
  2. Can only move a disk if it’s at the top of the stack.
  3. Can’t put a larger disk on a smaller disk.
49
Q

The Cognitive Tradition:

What are sub-goals and sub-goal decomposition?

A

The process of applying operators to obtain intermediate states (i.e., sub-goals), which are then used to reach the end goal state.

50
Q

Heuristics vs. Algorithms:

What are algorithms?

A

Algorithms are solutions that are guaranteed to work, but that may be difficult to use.

51
Q

Heuristics vs. Algorithms:

What are heuristics?

A

Heuristics are “quick-and-dirty” solutions that often work, but are not guaranteed (i.e., useful “rules of thumb”).

52
Q

Name 2 important heuristics:

A
  1. Means-end analysis

2. Satisficing

53
Q

What is means-end analysis?

A

Selecting operators that reduce the distance between the current state and the goal state.

54
Q

What are the drawbacks of means-end analysis?

A

Means-end analysis does not always work

(e.g., the Tower of Hanoi problem requires making moves away from the goal state to, e.g., move disks out of the way).

55
Q

What is satisficing?

A

Not waiting for the optimal solution, but instead going for with a satisfactory or good- enough solution.

56
Q

What are the strengths of satisficing?

A

Satisficing works really well for ill-defined problems

(e.g., finding a career, spouse, etc.).

57
Q

What is Analogical Problem Solving?

A

Using the solution to one problem (i.e., the source problem) to solve another problem (i.e., the target problem).

58
Q

What was the hypothesis to Dunker’s (1945) radiation problem?

A

Can people make analogies between problems, using the solution of a source problem to solve a target problem?

59
Q

What was the method used in Dunker’s (1945) radiation problem?

A

Subjects attempted to solve a target problem in 1 of 3 conditions.

60
Q

What was the 1st condition group in Dunker’s (1945) radiation problem?

A

Condition #1 – target problem presented by itself.

61
Q

What was the 2nd condition group in Dunker’s (1945) radiation problem?

A

Condition #2 – target problem presented after reading a description of a similar (source) problem and its solution as part of a “memory” experiment, with instructions to then solve the target problem as part of a “distractor” task.

62
Q

What was the 3rd condition group in Dunker’s (1945) radiation problem?

A

Condition #3 – target problem presented after reading the source problem with an explicit hint that the 2 problems are analogs.

63
Q

What were the results for the 1st condition group in Dunker’s (1945) radiation problem?

A

Condition #1 (i.e., target problem by itself) – 10% of subjects solved target problem.

64
Q

What were the results for the 2nd condition group in Dunker’s (1945) radiation problem?

A

Condition #2 (i.e., target problem preceded by source problem) – 30% of subjects solved target problem.

65
Q

What were the results for the 3rd condition group in Dunker’s (1945) radiation problem?

A

Condition #3 (i.e., target problem preceded by source problem with explicit hint) – 75% of subjects solved target problem.

66
Q

What was the conclusion to Dunker’s (1945) radiation problem?

A

Schema induction is the process of restructuring how a problem is represented via analogy; consists of 3 necessary steps.

67
Q

According to Dunker’s (1945) radiation problem, what are the 3 necessary steps to schema induction?

A
  1. Noticing
  2. Mapping
  3. Applying
68
Q

According to Dunker’s (1945) radiation problem, what is ‘noticing’ in the 1st step to schema induction?

A

Noticing – the analogical relationship based on surface (but not necessarily deep) similarity between the source and target problems.

69
Q

According to Dunker’s (1945) radiation problem, what is ‘mapping’ in the 2nd step to schema induction?

A

Mapping – from the components of the source problem onto the target problem.

70
Q

According to Dunker’s (1945) radiation problem, what is ‘applying’ in the 3rd step to schema induction?

A

Applying – the solution to the source problem to the target problem.

71
Q

What are the 2 characteristic of experts in problem solving?

A
  1. 10-20,000 hours of experience.

2. At 40 hours per week × 50 weeks per year = 2,000 hours per year.

72
Q

How many years of effort does it take for expertise to develop?

A

5-10 years.

73
Q

Little work has been done examining the relationship between aptitude and expertise.
Novices vs. experts differ in terms of both:
1.
2.

A
  1. knowledge organisation

2. analysis of problems

74
Q

Why did Chase and Simon (1973) seek to study in their experiment?

A

Knowledge Organisation

75
Q

What method was used in Chase and Simon’s (1973) knowledge organisation experiment?

A

Studied chess players and documented differences in terms of how much different chess players knew.

76
Q

What were the results in Chase and Simon’s (1973) knowledge organisation experiment?

There were 3 types of players:

A
  1. Masters – know ~50,000 configurations.
  2. Good players – know ~1,000 configurations.
  3. Novices – know few or no configurations.
77
Q

Chase and Simon’s (1973) knowledge organisation experiment:

What was a Master player?

A

Masters – know ~50,000 configurations.

78
Q

Chase and Simon’s (1973) knowledge organisation experiment:

What was a Good player?

A
  1. Good players – know ~1,000 configurations.
79
Q

Chase and Simon’s (1973) knowledge organisation experiment:

What was a Novice player?

A
  1. Novices – know few or no configurations.
80
Q

What did Chi (1982) seek to study in his experiment?

A

Physics experts vs. novices.

81
Q

Who were the experts in Chi’s (1982) knowledge organisation experiment?

A

Experts = physics professors and graduate students.

82
Q

Who were the experts in Chi’s (1982) knowledge organisation experiment?

A

Novices = undergraduates with 1 semester of physics.

83
Q

What was the method used in Chi’s (1982) knowledge organisation experiment?

A

Subjects asked to sort problems into 2 groups of similar problems.

84
Q

How did experts sort problems in Chi’s (1982) knowledge organisation experiment?

A

Experts sorted problems based on underlying principles (e.g., conservation of energy).

85
Q

How did novices sort problems in Chi’s (1982) knowledge organisation experiment?

A

Novices sorted problems based on surface features (e.g., inclined planes).

86
Q

What did Paige and Simon (1966) seek to study in their experiment?

A

Analysis of problems.

87
Q

What was the method used in Paige and Simon (1966) analysis of problems experiment?

A

A board is sawed into 2 pieces. One piece was two-thirds as long as the whole board and was exceeded in length by the second piece by 4 feet.
Participants were asked how long was the board before it was cut.

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