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Language and Memory > Attention > Flashcards

Attention Flashcards

1
Q

What is attention?

A

Attention is the mental processes or resources used to facilitate perceptual processing and thought.

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2
Q

What do we mean when we say ‘process’ when describing attention?

A

Process is selecting or enhancing something for further processing; or filtering out things that are being processed.

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3
Q

What do we mean when we say ‘resource’ when describing attention?

A

Resource is the limited capacity pool of mental energy that can be applied to processing info.

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4
Q

Attention is related to ________/________, which is controlled by the ________ _________ ______ (___), part of the brain stem that functions in a manner similar to a light dimmer dial.

A

Attention is related to alertness/arousal, which is controlled by the Reticular Activating System (RAS), part of the brain stem that functions in a manner similar to a light dimmer dial.

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5
Q

What is the RAS?

A

The Reticular Activating System is part of the brain stem that functions in a similar manner to a light dimmer dial. It is an ancient system also present in more primitive creatures (e.g. reptiles).

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6
Q

Attention is also related to the _______ response, which orients organisms towards _____ stimuli (which can be dangerous or often significant in some way). As such, the ________ response is also related to _______ via dis/____uation.

A

Attention is also related to the orienting response, which orients organisms towards novel stimuli (which can be dangerous or often significant in some way). As such, the orientating response is also related to learning via dis/habituation.

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7
Q

Attention is a process of controlling the selection of _______ _____. What are the 2 types of attentional filtering?

A
  1. Overt attention.

2. Covert attention.

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8
Q

What is overt attention?

A

Selective filtering of input by physically changing the sensory array (e.g. moving eyes to look at something interesting).

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9
Q

What is covert attention?

A

Selective filtering of input by focusing the internal spotlight of attention. Covert attention can to at least some degree be decoupled from overt attention.

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10
Q

Who demonstrated decoupling of covert and overt attention in 1980, using a spatial-cueing task?

A

Posner

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11
Q

What did Posner hypothesise in his experiment on attention?

A

Covert attention requires time to shift from one location to another, thus, the spotlight is limited in its spatial extent.

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12
Q

What was the method used in Posner’s experiment on attention?

A

Subjects fixated (maintained a gaze) on a central location, where a cue indicated the location of a briefly displayed peripheral target letter (e.g. T vs. H).

Subjects were instructed to indicate a target letter identity as quickly an accurately as possible under 3 conditions.

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13
Q

What were the 3 conditions used in Posner’s experiment on attention?

A
  1. Valid cue.
  2. Invalid cue.
  3. Neutral cue.
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14
Q

What was the valid cue condition used in Posner’s experiment on attention?

A

The cue indicated the correct location of the target letter 80% of the time.

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15
Q

What was the invalid cue condition used in Posner’s experiment on attention?

A

The cue indicated the correct location of the target letter 20% of the time.

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16
Q

What was the neutral cue condition used in Posner’s experiment on attention?

A

The cue indicated the correct location of the target letter 50% of the time.

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17
Q

What were the results of Posner’s experiment on attention?

A

Slower response times in locating target letter with valid and neutral cues.

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18
Q

What were the 2 main conclusions in Posner’s experiment on attention?

A
  1. The spotlight (overt attention) takes time to find a target.
  2. The spotlight is limited in its spatial extent, as it could not focus on all possible locations at once.
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19
Q

Who in 1984, argued that attention is not focused on locations, but on objects which happen to be at those locations?

A

Duncan

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20
Q

What did Duncan hypothesise in his experiment on attention?

A

If attention is object-based, then surely it is easier to attend to 1 object rather than 2.

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21
Q

What was the method used in Duncan’s experiment on attention?

A

Subjects saw 2 simple objects, superimposed at the same viewing location. Each object had 2 binary features (tall vs. short). Participants were assigned to 2 conditions.

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22
Q

What were the 2 conditions used in Duncan’s experiment on attention?

A

Subjects had to quickly make binary decisions about either:

  1. Features from both objects.
  2. Features of a single object.
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23
Q

What were the conclusions in Duncan’s experiment on attention?

A

It is easier to focus on one object at a time, suggesting attention is object based; in line with original hypothesis.

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24
Q

According to Duncan’s experiment on attention, what are the two main reasons attention is object based?

A
  1. Distribution of attention.

2. Orienting.

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25
Q

According to Duncan’s experiment on attention, how does the distribution of conscious and unconscious attention, make it object based?

A

Visually perceived objects affect the distribution of conscious and unconscious attention.

Consciously attending to one aspect of an object automatically facilitates the processing of other aspects of the same object, whether in terms of accuracy or response times.

When a visual search involves locating 2 features, it is more efficient when both of the features occur in the same object, as opposed to 2 features separates into 2 different objects.

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26
Q

According to Duncan’s experiment on attention, how does orienting make attention object based?

A

Object-based attention can shift quicker within an object than between objects. When looking for a target object, there is a preference to make eye-shifts within the same object, than than between them.

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27
Q

Who sought to investigate whether visual attention is necessary in 1980?

A

Treisman and Gelade.

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28
Q

What did Treisman and Gelade hypothesise in their experiment on visual attention?

A

Attention is necessary to bind together features of objects, so that representations of those objects can be generated as particular spatial locations.

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29
Q

What was the method used in Treisman and Gelade’s experiment on visual attention?

A

Subjects visually searched for target objects (stimuli) in variable-sized search arrays. There were 2 basic conditions.

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30
Q

What were the 2 conditions used in Treisman and Gelade’s experiment on visual attention?

A
  1. Disjunctive search.

2. Conjunctive search.

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31
Q

What was the Disjunctive Search condition in Treisman and Gelade’s experiment on visual attention?

A

Target objects were defined by a single feature:

blue letter, or letter ‘S’.

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32
Q

What was the Conjunctive Search condition in Treisman and Gelade’s experiment on visual attention?

A

Target objects were defined by 2 features:

blue letter + letter ‘S’.

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33
Q

What were the results for the Disjunctive Search group in Treisman and Gelade’s experiment on visual attention?

A

When looking for a single feature, reaction times remained constant, because the target object ‘pops out’, irrespective of the number of other distractor objects.

This indicates a parallel search.

34
Q

What were the results for the Conjunctive Search group in Treisman and Gelade’s experiment on visual attention?

A

When the size of the search set increased, responses became slower.

‘No’ responses were twice as slow as ‘yes’ responses, indicating a serial search.

35
Q

What were the 3 main conclusions of Treisman and Gelade’s experiment on visual attention?

A
  1. Feature-Integration Theory: a set of basic features could be processed in parallel, across the visual field in a pre-attentive stage.
  2. Other visual stimuli, including conjunctions of basic features, could not be identified unless selected by attention in a serial manner.
  3. Feature-Integration Theory held that attention was required if 2+ features are to be bound together in a coherent perception.
36
Q

Attention is a resource. What are the 2 basic types of processes?

A
  1. Automatic.

2. Controlled.

37
Q

What are the 5 features of automatic processes?

A
  1. Happens without content or conscious volition.
  2. Not open to introspection.
  3. Does not consume mental resources.
  4. Does not conflict with other mental processes (e.g. multi-tasking).
  5. Is very fast (less than 1 second).
38
Q

What are the 6 features of controlled processes?

A
  1. Happens with content and conscious volition.
  2. Open to introspection.
  3. Consumes mental resources.
  4. Conflicts with other mental processes.
  5. Is slow.
  6. Can eventually become automatic (e.g. conditioning).
39
Q

Who sought to investigate how automatic processes develops in 1977?

A

Shiffrin and Schneider

40
Q

What did Shiffrin and Schneider hypothesise in their experiment on automatic processes?

A

That automaticity develops with consistent practice.

41
Q

What was the method used in Shiffrin and Schneider’s experiment on automatic processes?

A

Subjects searched for target letters in visual arrays of varying set size (1-4 letters) across thousands of trials and confirmed whether the specified letter was there or not.

Subjects were split into 2 conditions.

42
Q

What were the 2 conditions used in Shiffrin and Schneider’s experiment on automatic processes?

A
  1. Consistent mapping.

2. Varied mapping.

43
Q

What was the Consistent Mapping condition in Shiffrin and Schneider’s experiment on automatic processes?

A

Targets and distractor always came from discrete sets of non-overlapping items.

The target letter was never a distractor.

44
Q

What was the Varied Mapping condition in Shiffrin and Schneider’s experiment on automatic processes?

A

Targets and distractors came from a set of common items and varied from trial to trial.

The target letter was always and earlier, or later, distractor.

45
Q

What were the results of Shiffrin and Schneider’s experiment on automatic processes?

A

After lots of practice, automaticity develops in the Consistent Mapping condition.

Automaticity did not develop in the Varied Mapping condition.

46
Q

Why did automaticity develop during the Consistent Mapping condition in Shiffrin and Schneider’s experiment on automatic processes?

A

Over time, the target and distractor gets burned in (automaticity), so the set size has no effect.

47
Q

Why did automaticity fail to develop during the Varied Mapping condition in Shiffrin and Schneider’s experiment on automatic processes?

A

Because the targets and distractors changed each trial, they didn’t have a change to burn in and so remained a conscious process.

48
Q

What are the 3 pro’s of automatic processes?

A
  1. Less resource demanding:
    doesn’t require attention, allows multi-tasking.
  2. Less prone to error.
  3. Can transfer to similar tasks.
49
Q

What are the 2 cons of automatic processes?

A
  1. Can result in errors.
  2. Negative transfer: can interfere with the learning of new tasks (e.g. learning to drive on the opposite side of the road).
50
Q

When does input selection (attention) happen?

A

Visual and auditory input.

51
Q

What is visual attention?

A

Sensory filtering of visual input, occurring overtly and covertly,

52
Q

Give an example of overt visual sensory filtering:

A

Eye movements.

53
Q

Give an example of covert visual sensory filtering:

A

Mental filtering.

54
Q

What is auditory attention?

A

Sensory filtering of auditory input, occurring mainly covertly.

55
Q

Give an example of overt auditory sensory filtering:

A

Ear movements.

56
Q

Give an example of covert auditory sensory filtering:

A

Mental filtering.

57
Q

According to ______ (1982), there are 3 possible stages of input selection:

  1. (Type 1) ______ selection.
  2. (Type 2) _____ selection.
  3. (Type 3) _____ selection.
A

According to Eysenck (1982), there are 3 possible stages of input selection:

  1. (Type 1) Early selection.
  2. (Type 2) Middle selection.
  3. (Type 3) Late selection.
58
Q

According to Eysenck (1982), what is (Type 1) early selection based on?

A

Sensory analysis.

59
Q

According to Eysenck (1982), what is (Type 2) middle selection based on?

A

Linguistic analysis.

E.g. semantic or meaning based.

60
Q

According to Eysenck (1982), what is (Type 3) late selection based on?

A

Conscious awareness.

61
Q

Who found evidence of type 1 selection in 1953?

A

Cherry

62
Q

What did Cherry hypothesise in his experiment on input selection?

A

That input selection occurs early (Type 1).

63
Q

What was the method in Cherry’s experiment on input selection?

A

Subjects performed a dichotic listening task by listening to 2 simultaneous streams (1 in each ear). They were then instructed to repeat back a message from only 1 auditory input channel, while ignoring the input in the other ear.

64
Q

What were the 3 main results of Cherry’s experiment on input selection?

A
  1. Subjects repeated the attended message with a 1 second lag, in a monotone voice with poor recollection of the content of the message.
  2. Subjects were fairly good at detecting certain physical changes in the unattended message: such as the voice switching from male to female, insertion of meaningless sounds.
  3. Subjects didn’t detect changes in the content of the unattended message if they had meaning, such as English switching to German, single words being repeated 35 times.
65
Q

What were the main conclusions in Cherry’s experiment on input selection?

A

It is difficult to attend to 2 things at once. Practically, we cannot do more than one thing at a time without performance on one or both tasks suffering.

66
Q

Who found evidence of type 2 selection in 1960?

A

Treisman

67
Q

What did Treisman hypothesise in his experiment on input selection?

A

That input selection occurs at the level of semantic analysis (Type 2), after input has already been processed.

68
Q

What was the method used in Treisman’s experiment on input selection?

A

Same method used by Cherry (1953) experiment, except the messages being played on the 2 auditory input channels sometimes switched midway through the messages.

E.g.

Channel #1: Whilst Bill was walking through the forest / a bank can lend you money.

Channel #2: If you want to buy a car / a tree fell across his path.

69
Q

What were the results of Treisman’s experiment on input selection?

A

Subjects often switched channels, not knowing they had done so, continuing shadowing the content of the unattended channel.

E.g. subject says aloud: “While bill was walking through the forest, a tree fell across his path.”

70
Q

What were the 2 main conclusions of Treisman’s experiment on input selection?

A

Evidence for type 2 input: it happens later on the basis of semantic content of what is being attended to.

Your attention will follow, even if it switches channels.

71
Q

What are the two main theories used to explain Type 2 attention?

A
  1. Treisman’s (1960) Attenuation theory.

2. Norman’s (1968) Persistence theory.

72
Q

What is Treisman’s (1960) Attenuation Theory?

A

Input selection is based on meaning, but with the volume of unattended channel being reduced, it is not completely blocked. Therefore, some minimal amount of processing occurs for info coming through unattended input channels.

73
Q

What is the anecdotal evidence for Treisman’s (1960) Attenuation Theory?

A

The cocktail party phenomenon:

hearing your name whilst in convo with someone else, due to its representation in memory, it’s important!

74
Q

What is Norman’s (1968) Persistence Theory?

A

Persistence is the momentary importance of incoming info due to pre-existing representations in both short-term and long-term memory.

75
Q

Who found evidence of type 3 selection in 1978?

A

Johnston and Heinz

76
Q

What did Johnston and Heinz hypothesise in their experiment on input selection?

A

That input selection occurs at all 3 stages.

77
Q

What was the method used in Johnston and Heinz’s experiment on input selection?

A

Subject performed a 3-eared man shadowing task; similar to the one used by Cherry (1953), but with 3 messages.

78
Q

What was the primary task in Johnston and Heinz’s experiment on input selection?

A

Subjects had to shadow message #1, whilst ignoring messages #2 and #3.

The unattended messages could differer from the attend message physically (e,g, male vs. female) and semantically (topic #1 vs. topic #2).

79
Q

What was the secondary task in Johnston and Heinz’s experiment on input selection?

A

Subjects had to monitor a lightbulb, and as quickly as possible, indicate changes in its brightness. Their reaction times were recorded as an indirect measure of how difficult the primary task was.

80
Q

What were the 3 main results of Johnston and Heinz’s experiment on input selection?

A
  1. If channels differed physically:
    the reaction times were slower.
  2. If channels differed semantically:
    this resulted in the slowest reaction times.
  3. If channels differed both semantically and physically:
    it was easier to keep them separated, thus reaction times were the quickest.
81
Q

What were the 3 main conclusions of Johnston and Heinz’s experiment on input selection?

A
  1. The subjects had control over early vs. late selection by the manner in which they allocated their mental resources.
  2. Early selection requires less resources, as they do not have to allocate attentional capacity to unattended info.
  3. Late selection (attending to multiple tasks) requires more resources.
82
Q

How did Johnston and Heinz use Multimode Theory to explain Type 3 attention in their experiment on input selection?

A

Multimode theory, combines selection and capacity views of attention:

  1. Attention is flexible, so selection occurs at multiple levels.
  2. Later selection is more limited in capacity, so responses are slower and less accurate.

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