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Language and Memory > Episodic Long Term Memory > Flashcards

Episodic Long Term Memory Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 2 types of Episodic long term memory?

A
  1. Declarative

2. Procedural

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2
Q

What is Declarative long-term memory?

A

Memory for things that can be talked about and consciously re-experienced.

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3
Q

What are the 3 types of Declarative long-term memory?

A
  1. Episodic
  2. Semantic
  3. Procedural
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4
Q

DLTM:

What is episodic LTM?

A

Autobiographical memory often rich in contextual detail.

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5
Q

DLTM:

What is semantic LTM?

A

Memory for facts, concepts, often devoid of contextual detail.

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6
Q

DLTM:

What is lexical LTM?

A

Memory for words, including their meanings in a mental ‘dictionary’.

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7
Q

What is Procedural long-term memory?

A

Memory for how to do something.

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8
Q

What are 3 types of Procedural long-term memory?

A
  1. Priming
  2. Conditioning
  3. Misc.
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9
Q

PLTM:

What is priming LTM?

A

Processing a stimulus facilitates the processing of another similar stimulus.

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10
Q

PLTM:

What is conditioning LTM?

A

Operant and classical conditioning (Skinner and Pavlov).

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11
Q

PLTM: What is misc. LTM?

A

Taste-aversion learning.

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12
Q

Who sought to explain memory and consciousness in 1985?

A

Tulving

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13
Q

What did Tulving discover about memory and consciousness?

A

That different types of memory are associated with different levels of consciousness, spread across a continuum.

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14
Q

What were the several types of consciousness discovered by Tulving?

A
  1. Auto-noetic
  2. Noetic
  3. Anoetic
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15
Q

What type of memory does auto-noetic consciousness use and what level of awareness does it achieve?

A 
Episodic memory.
Self awareness (as indexed by the gallop mark or mirror test)
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16
Q

What type of memory does noetic consciousness use and what level of awareness does it achieve?

A

Semantic memory.

Simple awareness.

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17
Q

What type of memory does anoetic consciousness use and what level of awareness does it achieve?

A

Procedural memory.

Non-awareness.

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18
Q

What kinds of creatures show anoetic awareness?

A

Reptiles, amphibians, fish, arthropods.

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19
Q

What kinds of creatures show noetic awareness?

A

Mammals, birds, reptiles.

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20
Q

What kinds of creatures show autonoetic awareness?

A

Humans, higher primates. elephants, cetaceans, African grey parrots.

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21
Q

What are mnemonics?

A

Mental tricks used to help us remember episodic information. E.g. associate each item on a list with its physical location.

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22
Q

Mnemonics provide scaffolding for which 3 memory processes?

A
  1. Encoding
  2. Storage
  3. Retrieval
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23
Q

How does mnemonics aid encoding?

A

Rehearsing items.

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24
Q

How does mnemonics aid storage (retention)?

A

Items are organised and associated with info already in long-term memory, represented in multiple modalities (verbal and visual).

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25
Q

How does mnemonics aid retrieval?

A

Provides retrieval cues and a method for checking that all items have been retrieved.

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26
Q

For effective long-term memory, ______, ______ and _______ must all occur!

A

For effective long-term memory, encoding, storage and retrieval must all occur!

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27
Q

In 1968, who discovered the 2 main effects of rehearsal?

A

Atkinson and Shiffrin

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28
Q

What were the 2 main effects of rehearsal, found by Atkinson and Shiffrin?

A
  1. Maintenance.

2. Transfer.

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29
Q

What is maintenance?

A

Holding info in short-term memory.

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30
Q

What is transfer?

A

Moving info from short-term into long-term memory.

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31
Q

In 1971, who sought to discover whether rehearsal affects long-term memory?

A

Rundus

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32
Q

What did Rundus seek to discover in his experiment on long-term memory?

A

Whether rehearsal is predictive of long-term memory performance.

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33
Q

What was the method used in Rundus’ experiment on long-term memory?

A

Subjects attempted to free recall 20 words presented at a rate of 5 secs per-word.

They were then asked to rehearse the words aloud as they were presented.

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34
Q

What were there 2 main results of Rundus’ experiment on long-term memory?

A

Primacy portion: the more times a word is rehearsed, the more likely it ends up in long-term memory and is recalled.

Recency portion: no relationship between rehearsal and recall ability, as they are recalled first before the long-term memory his searched for the first lot of words.

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35
Q

What was the conclusion of Rundus’ experiment on long-term memory?

A

Rehearsal is linked to recall performance.

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36
Q

In 1972, who sought to discover the depth of encoding in LTM, as an alternative to the Modal Model?

A

Craik and Lockhart

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37
Q

What 2 theoretical questions did Craik and Lockhart seek to answer in their experiment on long-term memory?

A
  1. Are short-term and long-term memory separate systems, or are they merely part of a single unitary memory system in which the type of processing (e.g. shallow vs. deep) determines how well info is remembered?
  2. By using the Levels of Processing approach, is retention of info in memory determined by how deeply it is processed? (E.g. deeper processing = better recall)
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38
Q

What was the method used in Craik and Lockhart’s experiment on long-term memory?

A

Subjects were instructed to perform different types of processing on words in 1 of 3 conditions, designed to manipulate their depth of processing.

They were then asked to free recall the words.

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39
Q

What were the 3 possible conditions subjects were exposed to in Craik and Lockhart’s experiment on long-term memory?

A
  1. Letter-case judgments.
  2. Rhyme judgments.
  3. Semantic judgments.
40
Q

What were the letter-case judgments condition in Craik and Lockhart’s experiment on long-term memory?

A

Shallow processing, looking at visual form of letters.

Upper vs. lower case.

E.g. DOG = yes, dog = no

41
Q

What were the rhyme judgments condition in Craik and Lockhart’s experiment on long-term memory?

A

Moderate processing, making judgment about pronunciation.

Rhyme with blue.

E.g. clue = yes, blur = no.

42
Q

What were the semantic judgments condition in Craik and Lockhart’s experiment on long-term memory?

A

Deep processing, due to thinking about meaning.

Is it animate?

E.g. ant = yes, nail = no.

43
Q

What were the findings for each of the 3 conditions in Craik and Lockhart’s experiment on long-term memory?

A
  1. Letter case judgments: low recall.
  2. Rhyme judgments: moderate recall.
  3. Semantic judgments: high recall.
44
Q

What was the main conclusion of Craik and Lockhart’s experiment on long-term memory?

A

Deeper processing = deeper storage state, leading to better memory as more words are recalled.

45
Q

Based on Craik and Lockhart’s study of depth of encoding, what are the 2 types of rehearsal used to process information into memory?

A
  1. Maintenance.

2. Elaborative.

46
Q

What is maintenance rehearsal?

A

Shallow processing that keeps info active in memory, but only at the same shallow level. It will likely be forgotten.

47
Q

What is elaborative rehearsal?

A

Deeper processing that moves info fro deeper, more permanent levels of memory.

48
Q

Who conducted the famous ‘F-word’ study in 1975?

A

Craik and Watkins

49
Q

What did Craik and Watkins seek to discover in their experiment on long-term memory?

A

Evidence supporting levels of processing: maintenance and elaborative.

50
Q

What theoretical question did Craik and Watkins ask in their experiment on long-term memory?

A

Does type 1 (maintenance) improve recall?

51
Q

What was the method used in Craik and Watkins’ experiment on long-term memory?

A

Subjects saw a sequence of words display on a computer screen. They were then instructed to remember the most recently displayed ‘F-word’, which they attempted to maintain via type 1 rehearsal for various intervals of time, until the next ‘F-word’ appeared.

Each time an ‘F-word’ was seen, it was held in shallow memory by way of maintenance rehearsal. Subjects were falsely told their memory for the most recent ‘F-word’ would be tested, but actually all items were tested via free recall.

52
Q

What were the results of Craik and Watkin’s experiment on long-term memory?

A

Type 1 (maintenance) does not improve recall; there was no effect.

The number of intervening words between the ‘F-words’ had no effect on recall.

53
Q

What were the conclusions of Craik and Watkin’s experiment on long-term memory?

A

Supports the notion that maintenance rehearsal, the recycling of info at a shallow level, does not change its ability to be recalled later on.

54
Q

In 1978, who criticised Craik and Watkin’s experiment on long-term memory?

A

Baddley

55
Q

What was Baddley’s 3 major criticisms of Craik and Watkin’s experiment on long-term memory?

A
  1. The result is a null finding.
  2. The levels of processing approach: the definition of processing ‘depth’ is circular.
  3. No independent way of evaluating levels of processing, as they both depend on each other.
56
Q

In 1966, what motivated the 2-Process Theory?

A

Tulving and Pearlstone’s distinction between recognition vs. recall.

57
Q

What is recognition?

A

A sense of familiarity, which is the basis of decisions of whether something is familiar (old) vs. unfamiliar (new).

58
Q

What is recall?

A

A sense of familiarity, and retrieval of info from our long-term memory stores.

With recall, info can be stored in the long-term memory, but not accessible, much like a book is available in a library, but not accessible because it has been incorrectly shelved.

59
Q

What 2 theoretical questions did Tulving and Pearlstone seek to answer in their experiment on long-term memory?

A
  1. What accounts for the distinction between recognition vs. recall?
  2. Why is some info stored in long-term memory, but not accessible?
60
Q

What was the 2 phase method used in Tulving and Pearlstone’s experiment on long-term memory?

A

Phase 1:
2 groups of subjects, exposed to an identical study task:
Studied 48 words, with 4 each from 12 different semantic categories.

E.g. profession = engineer, crime = treason.

Phase 2:

Group 1: given free recall instructions.
Group 2: Given cued recall (category headings; e.g. profession, crime.)

61
Q

What were the results for the 2 conditions in Tulving and Pearlstone’s experiment on long-term memory?

A

Group 1: free recall accuracy = 40%

Group 2: cued recall accuracy = 62%

62
Q

What was the main conclusion of Tulving and Pearlstone’s experiment on long-term memory?

A

Irregardless of how words were studied, being given a cue to help retrieve info helps recall ability.

63
Q

Who proposed the Encoding Specificity Principle in 1970?

A

Thompson and Irving

64
Q

What is the Encoding Specificity Principle?

A

Info is always encoded in a rich context (e.g. environment, cognitive state) and represented holistically in Episodic memory.

65
Q

What influences the likelihood of retrieving rich contextual info?

A

The degree to which encoding matches the context at retrieval.

Study and test context.

Greater the amount they overlap = easier to recall.

66
Q

Recognition is usually easier than _____, however, if _______ ______ is large enough, _____ should be easier. This goes against the _-_______ theory of Tulving and Pearlstone (1966).

A

Recognition is usually easier than recall, however, if contextual overlap is large enough, recall should be easier. This goes against the 2-Process theory of Tulving and Pearlstone (1966).

67
Q

In 1973, who sought to find out whether context may override the natural advantage of recognition over recall?

A

Tulving and Thompson.

68
Q

What theoretical question did Tulving and Thompson seek to answer in their experiment on long-term memory?

A

Contrary to the 2-Process theory, if context is important, then it should be possible to show better recall than recognition.

69
Q

What was the 2 step method used in Tulving and Thompson’s experiment on long-term memory?

A
  1. Subjects studied pairs of weakly associated words, consisting of the recall word in uppercase letters, alongside a context word in lowercase letters.

E.g. CAT - collar

  1. Their memory was then tested for those items in 2 different conditions.
70
Q

What were the 2 conditions subjects memory was tested in Tulving and Thompson’s experiment in long-term memory?

A
  1. Recognition using strongly associated retrieval cues.

2. Recall using the original, weakly associated retrieval cues.

71
Q

What were the results for each the 2 conditions in Tulving and Thompson’s experiment on long-term memory?

A

Recall performance was better than recognition!

72
Q

What conclusions were drawn from Tulving and Thompson’s experiment on long-term memory?

A
  1. Strong support for Encoding Specificity Principle.
  2. Context has a huge effect.
  3. If the overlap is big, you can recall info you can’t recognise.
73
Q

What is the main criticism of Tulving and Thompson’s experiment on long-term memory?

A

If the Encoding Specificity Principle is correct, then contextual overlap should work with different types of context.

74
Q

In 1975, who sought to find out whether mismatching environmental context can influence memory?

A

Godden and Baddeley

75
Q

What theoretical question did Godden and Baddeley seek to answer in their experiment on long-term memory?

A

Does mismatching environmental context influence memory?

76
Q

What was the method used in Godden and Baddeley’s experiment on long-term memory?

A

Scuba divers studied lists of words either on land or underwater. Recall of those words was tested in either the same place they studied, or another place. There were 4 conditions.

77
Q

What were the 4 conditions used in Godden and Baddeley’s experiment on long-term memory?

A
  1. Studied on land, tested on land.
  2. Studied on land, tested underwater.
  3. Studied underwater, tested on land.
  4. Studied underwater, tested underwater.
78
Q

What were the results in Godden and Baddeley’s experiment on long-term memory?

A

You tested better where you studied!

79
Q

What was the conclusion of Godden and Baddeley’s experiment on long-term memory?

A

Environmental context has a huge effect on our ability to recall info from episodic long-term memory.

80
Q

In 1980, who sought to study whether mismatching mental context affects state-dependent memory?

A

Eich

81
Q

What theoretical question did Eich seek to answer in his experiment on long-term memory?

A

Does mis/matching mental context affect state-dependent memory?

82
Q

What was the method used in Eich’s experiment on long-term memory?

A

Subjects studied a list of words while sober or intoxicated. Recall of these words were later tested in the same or opposite mental state. There were 4 conditions.

83
Q

What were the 4 conditions used in Eich’s experiment on long-term memory?

A
  1. Study sober, test sober.
  2. Study sober, test intoxicated.
  3. Study intoxicated, test sober.
  4. Study intoxicated, test intoxicated.
84
Q

What were the results of Eich’s experiment on long-term memory?

A

You tested better the same way you studied!

85
Q

What was the main conclusion of Eich’s experiment on long-term memory?

A

Mental context plays a huge role in recall from Episodic long-term memory.

86
Q

What is amnesia?

A

Memory loss, typically caused by brain damage or disease (e.g. Korsakoff’s syndrome), but is also a normal part of development.

87
Q

What are the types of amnesia?

A
  1. Infantile amnesia.
  2. Post-traumatic amnesia (PTA)
  3. Profound (dense) amnesia.
88
Q

What is infantile amnesia?

A

Forgetting an autobiographic event prior to the age of 3. It is extremely common, a part of normal brain development.

89
Q

What causes infantile amnesia?

A

Brain development, language development, state-dependent learning.

90
Q

What is post-traumatic amnesia? (PTA)

A

Memory loss caused by trauma to the head. Usually results in concussion and poor memory prior to and after the accident. The window of info forgotten tends to shrink as time goes by.

91
Q

What is the ‘shrinking window’ phenomenon in amnesia?

A

Is indicates that long-term memory formation is not immediate, as it requires time for consolidation; a biological process that allows for permanent retention of info in long-term memory stores.

92
Q

What is profound (dense) amnesia?

A

Severe amnesia caused by damage to the hippocampus, a brain region important for episodic memory. It can also be caused by some diseases like Alzheimers.

93
Q

What are the 2 subtypes of amnesia following head injury?

A
  1. Retrograde amnesia.

2. Anterograde amnesia.

94
Q

What is retrograde amnesia?

A

Poor memory of info before the accident.

95
Q

What is anterograde amnesia?

A

Poor memory of info after the accident.

96
Q

What are the 5 characteristics of amnesiac syndrome?

A
  1. Functional working memory.
  2. Poor Episodic long-term memory.
  3. Good memory for autobiographical info prior to onset of amnesia.
  4. Spared procedural long-term memory (e.g. can learn new motor skills).
  5. Spared semantic long-term memory (can understand language).

Language and Memory (10 decks)

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