problem solving Flashcards
what is a problem?
an obstacle between a present state and a goal state where it’s solution is not immediately obvious
problem solving
transforming a current state into a goal state
routine problem-solving
using previously acquired knowledge or techniques (formulas) to solve analytically based problems knowing that a solution will come
non-routine problem solving
known strategies do not guarantee a solution or the possibility for success (individuals often require insight) - cannot predict how close the solution is after insightful idea
Restructuring
problems are first presented in one way, individuals restructure the problem to make it more intuitive.
insight
sudden comprehension, realization or solution that involves reorganization of the situation and leads to an interpretation that was not initially obvious
What are some obstacles to problem solving?
- mental set = one’s typical way of looking at a problem. based on previous experience, someone might use the same technique which may not work
- functional fixedness = fixating on the familiar use of an object and failing to think of new ways to use it
operators
actions that take the problem from one state to another (i.e., moving discs from one peg to the next)
problem space
initial state, intermediate state, goal state
means-ends analysis
reduce the difference between initial and goal states by creating subgoals
satisficer
a person who chooses a path or goal that is “good enough”, rather than searching endlessly for one that is best or optimal
optimizers
Tend to have worse decision outcomes because they tend to be perfectionists (become fixated on how to find the most perfect goal)
How do expert solve problems?
- draw analogies
- organize their knowledge
- they are more positive and patient
3 steps to analogical reasoning
- noticing the analogous relationships
- mapping the correspondence
- applying the mapping
when shown 24 physics problems to solve and sort based on similarities, how did experts vs novices complete the tasks?
Novice = sorted based on surface similarities
Experts = sorted based on structural/deeper features
What is creativity?
Creating, originality, value
divergent thinking
Open-ended thought that produces many alternatives (use prior knowledge and other people’s ideas)
incubation
sudden insight after taking time off
High mind wandering leads to…(DMN)
an increase in creativity
What roles do the default mode network and the executive control network have on creativity?
The default mode network allows the mind to wander while the executive control actively network directs attention away from unoriginal responses
What is stronger in the brain for highly creative people?
functional connectivity between the DMN and the ECN
How does the left anterior temporal lobe affect creativity?
Because this area is involved in low-level pattern grouping, it’s deactivation and activation of the right ATL helps to generate creativity (9-dot problem - people with deactivated Left ATL produced more solutions)
If an individual possesses frontal lobe activity prior to having to solve a problem, what type of problem solving would they use?
Insight solutions
If an individual possesses occipital lobe activity prior to having to solve a problem, what type of problem solving would they use?
Analytically-based solutions
What predicts creativity?
- intelligence (complex relationship)
- personality (extraversion and openness to experience)
What are 3 ways to increase creativity?
- Scheduled mind-wandering
- Isolation/solitude
- mindfulness
3 ways to isolate
- be alone while thinking
- avoid distractions
- take feedback from others
Open-monitoring meditation
attend to thoughts as they occur, follow through with them - causes greater activation of the DMN, and promotes disinhibition
How do experts increase their creativity?
- they produce a lot
- they consume a lot
Judgement
Assessment of quantity
decisions
act of choosing an option among alternatives
just noticeable difference (JND)
The smallest change in quantity that can be noticeable
Weber-fechner law
The size of the JND is a constant ratio of the reference stimulus - the greater the difference the more important it becomes - a discount of 50% of an $100 item is more likely to influence an individual into a purchase than %50 a $10 item.
Heuristics
mental short-cuts that allow us to make judgements and decisions quickly
Availability heuristic
Events that more easily come to mind are judged as being more probable than events that are more easily recalled (i.e., people are more likely to think that the letter ‘k’ is in the beginning of more words than it is found as the 3rd letter - even tho more words have ‘k’ as the third letter)
Representativeness heuristic
making judgements based on how much an event resembles another event. the probability is related to how much A is representative of B
Base rate
the relative proportion of different classes within the population (only used properly when Ps are not given a description)
Conjunction fallacy
faulty reasoning inferring that a conjunction is more probable, likely, than just one of it’s conjunctions (the probability of A cannot exceed the probability of A and B being true)
Anchoring and adjustment heuristic
people make numerical estimates by using a “reference” as a starting point (anchor) and adjusting from there
Anchoring and adjustment heuristic occurs most often when
- when people know that the starting number is false
- when people believe that the starting number is randomly selected
- experts
