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3.3 Forensic psychology > Problem 8: Stalking > Flashcards

Problem 8: Stalking Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the prevalence of stalking in men and women?

A

Women: 7–19% experience stalking in their lifetime.

Men: 2–12% experience stalking in their lifetime.

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2
Q

What are the psychological, social, and physical impacts of stalking?

A

Psychological: Depression, post-traumatic stress, and suicide contemplation.

Social: Absences from work and relocation.

Physical: Increased alcohol use and health issues.

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3
Q

How does the duration of stalking episodes affect victims and systems?

A

Longer episodes worsen victims’ psychological disorders, force drastic measures like relocating, and increase financial burdens on legal and health systems.

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4
Q

What are the four criteria commonly included in legislative definitions of stalking?

A
  1. Intentional behavior
  2. Repetition of actions
  3. Unwanted by the victim
  4. Causes fear in the victim.
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5
Q

What victim-offender contexts are associated with stalking persistence?

A

Ex-intimate partners: Longest stalking durations.

Acquaintances and strangers: Shorter persistence, with strangers desisting the fastest.

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6
Q

How do stalker motivations influence stalking persistence?

A

Intimacy-seeking stalkers: Longest durations.

Incompetent and predatory stalkers: Fastest desistance.

Rejected stalkers: Variable persistence.

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7
Q

How do demographic factors like education, marital status, and age affect stalking persistence?

A

Education: Higher levels correlate with longer durations.

Marital Status: Single stalkers show variable persistence, either desisting quickly or persisting beyond 12 weeks.

Age and gender: Inconclusive findings.

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8
Q

How does attachment theory explain stalking behavior?

A

Insecure Attachments: Associated with stalking behaviors.

Preoccupied Attachment: Linked to anxiety about rejection, leading to dependency and prolonged stalking.

Attachment Disorders: Can result in greater persistence.

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9
Q

What is Relational Goal Pursuit (RGP) theory, and how does it explain stalking persistence?

A

RGP suggests stalking stems from an extreme desire for a relationship when the goal is unmet.

Key elements:
1. Goal Linking: Relationship tied to happiness/self-worth.
2. Rumination: Obsessive thoughts intensify pursuit.
3. Negative Affect: Emotional distress from rejection fuels persistence.
4. Self-Efficacy: Confidence in eventual success reinforces stalking behaviors.

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10
Q

How does rumination contribute to stalking persistence?

A

Obsessive thoughts: Persist until the goal is achieved or abandoned.

Emotional distress: Drives continued behavior to relieve negative emotions.

Belief in success: High self-efficacy sustains the behavior.

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11
Q

Which stalking behaviors were most common across persistence categories?

A

Surveillance behaviors: Reported by 94% of stalkers.

Interactional contacts: Reported by 79.1%.

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12
Q

How do moderately persistent stalkers differ from highly persistent stalkers?

A

Moderate persistence: More likely to engage in surveillance but less likely to commit violence.

High persistence: More likely to use aggressive behaviors, such as threats, violence, and property damage.

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13
Q

What personality disorder traits were analyzed in the study, and were they linked to persistence?

A

Borderline traits (24%) and narcissistic traits (19%).

Neither was significantly associated with stalking persistence.

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14
Q

How did attachment styles correlate with stalking persistence?

A

Secure attachment: 19%.
Fearful attachment: 30%.
Preoccupied attachment: 45%.
Dismissing attachment: 6%.

Moderate persistence: Linked to higher attachment anxiety.
High persistence: Linked to higher attachment avoidance.

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15
Q

What motives were associated with moderate and high stalking persistence?

A

Moderate persistence: Linked to amorous motives (69%) and hurt feelings.

High persistence: Linked to revenge motives (20%) and a desire to frighten or harm the victim (3%).

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16
Q

How did emotional states like rumination and anger relate to stalking persistence?

A

Rumination: Increased likelihood of moderate persistence.

Anger: Strongly associated with high persistence.

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17
Q

What demographic factors were linked to high stalking persistence?

A

Age: Stalkers aged 30+ were more likely to persist.

Education: Stalkers with tertiary education had higher odds of high persistence.

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18
Q

How do low persistence stalkers differ emotionally from moderate and high persistence stalkers?

A

Low persistence: Less likely to experience severe emotional distress or rumination.

Moderate persistence: Linked to feelings of hurt and suicidality.

High persistence: Associated with anger and severe emotional distress, such as depression or suicidality.

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19
Q

What behaviors and emotional states characterize highly persistent stalkers?

A

Use of aggressive tactics: Threats, severe violence, and property damage.

Emotional drivers: Anger, revenge motives, and feelings of being unable to cope.

Often motivated by malicious intent, not relational pursuit.

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20
Q

What are key findings from the study on stalking persistence?

A

Low persistence: Linked to fewer obsessive thoughts and less emotional turmoil.

Moderate persistence: Driven by amorous motives, attachment anxiety, and rumination.

High persistence: Driven by revenge motives, anger, and severe emotional distress.

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21
Q

What are the primary risk factors for stalking violence?

A

Ex-intimate relationships: Strong predictor.

Explicit threats: Increase risk significantly.

Property damage: Associated with violent outcomes.

Loitering/Spying: Especially significant in ex-intimate cases.

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22
Q

How does substance abuse impact stalking violence?

A

Substance abuse, particularly alcohol or drugs, is a consistent predictor of stalking violence.

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23
Q

What relationship types are linked to stalking violence and persistence?

A

Ex-intimate relationships: Associated with both violence and persistence.

Acquaintances: More likely to persist but less violent.

Strangers: Tend to desist quickly and show lower violence.

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24
Q

What factors predict stalking persistence?

A

Delusional beliefs: Strong association with persistence.

Prior acquaintanceship: Linked to prolonged stalking.

Duration beyond two weeks: Indicates higher likelihood of persistence.

Psychosis: Common in persistent stalkers, especially strangers/acquaintances.

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25
Q

How do personality traits relate to stalking persistence?

A

Attachment avoidance: Linked to high persistence.

Attachment anxiety: Associated with moderate persistence.

Borderline and narcissistic traits: Not significantly linked to persistence.

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26
Q

What are the main predictors of recurrent stalking?

A

Personality disorders: Especially Cluster B traits.

High criminal versatility: Broad range of offenses increases recurrence risk.

Erotomanic delusions: Associated with repeated targeting of similar victims.

Age over 30 years: Increased likelihood of recurrence.

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27
Q

How does prior stalking behavior influence recurrence?

A

A history of stalking, regardless of victim, is a strong predictor of recurrent stalking episodes.

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28
Q

What distinguishes stalking persistence from recurrence?

A

Persistence: Involves continued targeting of the same victim, often linked to psychosis or delusions.

Recurrence: Involves targeting new victims, often tied to personality disorders and antisocial behavior.

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29
Q

What are common motivations for stalking that impact persistence?

A

Amorous motives: Linked to moderate persistence.

Revenge motives: Associated with high persistence.

Intent to frighten or harm: Found in the most persistent stalkers.

30
Q

What demographic factors increase the risk of stalking violence and persistence?

A

Age under 30: More likely to engage in violence.

Age over 30: Linked to higher persistence and recurrence.

Tertiary education: Associated with prolonged stalking and high persistence.

31
Q

How do mental health issues affect stalking behaviors?

A

Psychosis: Linked to stalking persistence, especially in strangers and acquaintances.

Personality disorders: Strongly tied to recurrent stalking.

Anger and emotional distress: Drive violence and persistence in ex-intimates.

32
Q

How does stalking violence differ in ex-intimate cases?

A

Ex-intimate stalkers are more likely to display violent behaviors such as property damage and threats.

Cyberstalking is negatively associated with violence in ex-intimate cases.

33
Q

What implications do these findings have for managing stalkers?

A

Violent stalkers: Require targeted interventions addressing threats and property damage, especially for ex-intimates.

Persistent stalkers: Need routine forensic mental health assessments to address delusions or psychosis.

Recurrent stalkers: Require strategies tailored to either antisocial behavior or severe mental disorders.

34
Q

What is Intimate Partner Violence (IPV)?

A

IPV involves psychological, physical, or sexual aggression within an ongoing romantic relationship.

Prevalence:
* 23.1% of women and 19.3% of men experience physical IPV.
* 28.3% of women and 21.6% of men perpetrate physical IPV.
* Mutual aggression occurs in 50%-70% of cases.

35
Q

What is Postrelationship Stalking (PRS)?

A

PRS occurs after a relationship ends and involves repeated, unwanted, and intrusive behaviors aimed at contacting or pursuing the victim.

Defined by the intrusive nature of the behavior and the disparity between the stalker’s desires and the victim’s preferences.

Key Criterion: Any contact in PRS is deemed inappropriate.

36
Q

How does the prevalence of IPV compare to PRS?

A

IPV: More common, with millions affected globally across genders.

PRS: Impacts about 15% of people in their lifetimes.

Gender Dynamics: Stalking is 2-4 times more common among women, while IPV has more gender-balanced rates.

37
Q

What distinguishes IPV from PRS?

A
  1. Context:
    * IPV: Occurs during the relationship, involving aggression or control.
    * PRS: Occurs post-breakup, involving unwanted contact.
  2. Behavior Evaluation:
    * IPV: Assesses severity and type of abuse.
    * PRS: Defined solely by unwanted contact.
  3. Duration:
    * IPV: Ongoing behaviors.
    * PRS: Persistent, particularly beyond two weeks.
38
Q

What is the prevalence of PRS in stalking cases?

A

PRS constitutes approximately 45% of stalking cases, often linked to prior IPV.

39
Q

How are IPV and PRS connected?

A

Overlap:
* 33%-76% of PRS perpetrators committed IPV during the relationship.
* 32%-85% of PRS victims experienced IPV from their stalkers.
* Up to 75% of IPV victims report stalking post-separation.

40
Q

What types of IPV are linked to PRS?

A

Psychological IPV: Stronger associations with PRS than physical IPV.

Physical IPV: Predictive of PRS victimization in some studies.

Sexual Coercion: Limited evidence linking it to PRS but warrants further research.

41
Q

How does the CDC’s definition of IPV affect our understanding of PRS?

A

The CDC merges stalking into IPV, treating it as an extension of domestic violence.

This approach obscures the distinctions between IPV and PRS, complicating research and legislation.

42
Q

How does PRS differ from normative relational intrusion?

A

Normative relational intrusion involves reconciliation efforts post-breakup.

PRS becomes harmful when:
* It persists beyond 2 weeks.
* It includes five or more intrusive behaviors.

43
Q

What is Socially Desirable Responding (SDR) and how is it related to IPV/PRS behaviors?

A

Correlations between Impression Management (IM) and IPV/PRS behaviors were small or nonsignificant.

Stalkers reported lower IM scores than nonstalkers.

Strongest negative correlations with:
* Minor sexual coercion perpetration (τb = −.17).
* Severe sexual coercion victimization (τb = −.10).

44
Q

How do gender dynamics differ between IPV and PRS?

A

IPV: Gender-balanced rates of victimization and perpetration.

PRS: Women are 2-4 times more likely to be victims.

45
Q

How does IPV victimization increase the likelihood of stalking victimization?

A

Overall: 55% of IPV victims were stalked post-separation.

Women: 70.6% of severe IPV victims reported stalking (OR = 24.30).

Men: 57.6% of severe IPV victims reported stalking (OR = 18.15).

46
Q

What general insights can be drawn about IPV and PRS?

A

IPV victimization increases the risk of PRS, especially when IPV is severe.

Women report stalking victimization more frequently (55.7%) than men (29.2%).

PRS can occur without prior IPV, and IPV does not always lead to stalking.

47
Q

How has the growth of online communication influenced cyberstalking?

A

The increased use of social media and online communication has expanded opportunities for cyberstalking, highlighting the need for better understanding of its predictors and correlates.

48
Q

How does the inclusion of victim fear affect cyberstalking prevalence rates?

A

Including fear as a criterion significantly reduces prevalence rates, as seen in Dreßing et al. (2014), where rates dropped from **43.4% to 6.3%.

49
Q

What are common gender findings in cyberstalking research?

A

Some studies identify males as more frequent perpetrators, while others report no significant gender differences.

50
Q

How does the perpetrator-victim relationship vary in cyberstalking?

A

Perpetrators are often intimate or ex-partners, but in some studies, acquaintances, strangers, or unknown individuals are more common.

51
Q

What is the range of victimization and perpetration rates for cyberstalking in studies?

A

Victimization rates ranged from 3.4% to 85.2%, and perpetration rates varied between 4.9% to 82%

52
Q

What role does low self-control play in cyberstalking perpetration?

A

It significantly predicts perpetration and is often linked with risky online behaviors such as sexting.

53
Q

How does online guardianship influence cyberstalking perpetration?

A

Private internet access, less parental involvement, and more hours spent online increase perpetration risk.

54
Q

What are the mixed findings regarding sex and cyberstalking perpetration?

A

Some studies find females more likely to perpetrate, others find males, or report no significant differences.

55
Q

What personality traits predict cyberstalking perpetration?

A

Traits within the dark tetrad (narcissism, sadism, psychopathy) and low agreeableness predict perpetration.

56
Q

How does prior harassment or trauma relate to cyberstalking perpetration?

A

Victims of cyberstalking and those with adverse childhood experiences are more likely to engage in perpetration.

57
Q

What factors increase cyberstalking victimization risk?

A

Increased time online, sharing personal information, and engaging in risky behaviors like sexting.

58
Q

How does online disclosure affect victimization?

A

Sharing personal information and posting photos increases victimization risk, particularly for females.

59
Q

What is the role of cybersecurity settings in cyberstalking victimization?

A

The role is mixed; some studies link poor cybersecurity to higher risk, while others find no significant effect.

60
Q

How do risky online behaviors influence cyberstalking victimization?

A

Behaviors like sexting or downloading illegal content are associated with higher victimization rates.

61
Q

Are females more likely to be victims of cyberstalking?

A

Yes, many studies show females are more often targeted, though some find no significant gender difference.

62
Q

How does sexuality influence cyberstalking victimization?

A

LGBTQ+ individuals report higher cyberstalking rates than heterosexual individuals.

63
Q

What is the relationship between prior victimization and cyberstalking?

A

Offline victimization, such as sexual assault, increases the likelihood of online victimization.

64
Q

How does relationship status affect cyberstalking victimization?

A

Non-single individuals are more likely to be victimized, with perpetrators often being ex-partners, strangers, or acquaintances.

65
Q

What role do attachment styles play in cyberstalking perpetration?

A

Insecure attachment styles, such as preoccupied and fearful attachment, predict perpetration.

66
Q

How does race correlate with cyberstalking victimization and perpetration?

A

Some studies suggest non-white individuals are more likely to be victimized, but most find no significant relationship

67
Q

What contributes to inconsistencies in cyberstalking prevalence rates?

A

Differences in definitions, populations sampled, and cultural factors.

68
Q

How are deviant peer associations linked to cyberstalking perpetration?

A

They normalize deviant behaviors, especially among younger populations, and interact with low self-control to increase perpetration likelihood.

69
Q

What role does guardianship play in reducing cyberstalking perpetration?

A

Family education on cyber etiquette and improved consequences for online behaviors can help reduce disinhibition and risky behaviors.

70
Q

What does Routine Activity Theory suggest about cyberstalking victimization?

A

Online exposure, disclosure, and lack of guardianship increase victimization risk, though measures need standardization.

3.3 Forensic psychology (9 decks)

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