Problem 3: Psychological theories

Question 1

What does the General Personality and Cognitive Social Learning (GPCSL) theory focus on?

Answer 1

GPCSL recognizes multiple routes to criminal behavior and emphasizes the Central Eight risk/need factors that influence decisions to behave criminally. It considers personality, family relationships, and environmental cues.

Question 2

What are the Central Eight risk/need factors identified in GPCSL theory?

Answer 2

1. Criminal history.
   
   2. Procriminal attitudes.
   3. Procriminal associates.
   4. Antisocial personality pattern.
   5. Family/marital relationships.
   6. School/work.
   7. Substance abuse.
   8. Leisure/recreation.

Question 3

What is the difference between dynamic risk factors and static risk factors?

Answer 3

• Static risk factors: Cannot change (e.g., criminal history).
  
  • Dynamic risk factors: Can change over time and are targets for intervention (e.g., procriminal attitudes, substance abuse).

Question 4

How does GPCSL theory view the cognitive decision to commit a crime?

Answer 4

The cognitive decision is influenced by immediate environment, Central Eight risk/need factors, and the balance of rewards and costs in a given situation.

Question 5

What are examples of procriminal attitudes in GPCSL theory?

Answer 5

1. Identification with criminals.
   
   2. Negative views of the law and justice system.
   3. Beliefs that crime yields rewards.
   4. Rationalizations that justify criminal behavior (e.g., “the victim deserved it”).

Question 6

How do procriminal associates increase the likelihood of crime?

Answer 6

1. Encouraging criminal behavior through social influence.
   
   2. Isolating individuals from prosocial associates.
   3. Providing reinforcement for criminal actions.

Question 7

What are key dynamic targets for change in reducing antisocial personality patterns?

Answer 7

1. Increasing self-control.
   
   2. Building problem-solving skills.
   3. Enhancing empathy.
   4. Practicing anger management.

Question 8

How do environmental cues influence criminal decision-making?

Answer 8

Environmental cues act as facilitators or obstacles (e.g., unlocked vs. locked car). They shape the likelihood of criminal action in combination with risk/need factors.

Question 9

What role do social class and culture play in GPCSL theory?

Answer 9

They provide context for crime but do not directly cause it. Criminal behavior is better explained by individual Central Eight risk/need factors and specific reward-cost contingencies.

Question 10

What is the relationship between the number of Central Eight factors and criminal behavior?

Answer 10

As the number of Central Eight risk/need factors increases, the likelihood of engaging in illegal behavior also increases.

Question 11

How does GPCSL theory suggest addressing substance abuse as a risk factor?

Answer 11

1. Reducing substance use.
   
   2. Reducing personal and interpersonal supports for substance-oriented behavior.
   3. Enhancing alternatives to substance use.

Question 12

What are common risk indicators for criminal behavior according to GPCSL?

Answer 12

1. Early involvement in criminal activities.
   
   2. Extensive criminal history.
   3. Variety of offenses (property and violent crimes).
   4. Rule violations under supervision (e.g., parole violations).

Question 13

What personality traits in GPCSL theory are not strongly linked to criminal behavior?

Answer 13

Happiness, self-esteem, sociability, anxiety, and psychopathology are not strongly associated with criminal behavior in GPCSL theory.

Question 14

What does GPCSL say about the role of antisocial personality patterns in crime?

Answer 14

Antisocial personality patterns involve:
1. Weak self-control and lack of planning.
2. Negative emotionality, such as anger and impulsivity.

These traits can act as both stable and acute dynamic factors in criminal behavior.

Question 15

What factors in GPCSL theory may reduce the risk of criminal behavior?

Answer 15

1. Strong prosocial attitudes and associations.
   
   2. High self-control and problem-solving skills.
   3. Positive family relationships and strong supervision.
   4. Satisfying school/work and leisure activities.

Question 16

What are rewards and costs in the learning of behavior?

Answer 16

• Reward: A stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behavior.
  
  • Cost: A stimulus that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

Rewards and costs can occur before (signaled) or after behavior and influence its acquisition, maintenance, and modification.

Question 17

What are additive and subtractive rewards and costs?

Answer 17

• Additive rewards: Introduce something pleasant (e.g., praise).
  
  • Subtractive rewards: Remove something unpleasant (e.g., ending discomfort).
  • Additive costs: Add something unpleasant (e.g., punishment).
  • Subtractive costs: Remove something pleasant (e.g., losing privileges).

Question 18

What factors influence whether a stimulus is a reward or cost?

Answer 18

1. Genetic disposition (e.g., response to drugs).
   
   2. Cognitive functioning (e.g., ability to consider long-term costs).
   3. Human development (e.g., age-appropriate rewards).
   4. State conditions (e.g., intoxication).

Question 19

How does density of rewards and costs affect behavior?

Answer 19

• Frequent and immediate rewards strengthen behavior.
  
  • Costs are more effective if they are consistent and immediate.
  • High rewards for prosocial behavior reduce the appeal of deviant behavior by increasing its costs.

Question 20

What are non-mediated influences in behavior?

Answer 20

These are automatic behaviors shaped by past reinforcement and habitual associations, independent of conscious decision-making.

Question 21

What does GPCSL say about the balance of rewards and costs in criminal behavior?

Answer 21

• Criminal behavior increases when rewards for crime outweigh costs and rewards for prosocial behavior are low.
  
  • Criminal behavior decreases when costs for crime increase and prosocial rewards are high.

Question 22

What are key findings supporting GPCSL and the Central Eight risk/need factors?

Answer 22

1. Factors like procriminal attitudes, associates, and antisocial personality patterns are highly significant predictors of crime.
   
   2. Lower-class origins and personal distress are minor risk factors compared to attitudes and behavior.

Question 23

How do procriminal attitudes and associates increase crime likelihood?

Answer 23

1. Encourage criminal behavior through social reinforcement.
   
   2. Reduce exposure to prosocial influences.
   3. Create a network that normalizes deviant behavior.

Question 24

What role does B.F. Skinner’s principles play in GPCSL theory?

Answer 24

Skinner’s concepts of timing and frequency of rewards and costs are central. GPCSL emphasizes the density of rewards and costs in shaping behavior.

Question 25

What is the importance of intermediate levels of rewards and costs in criminal behavior?

Answer 25

Adjusting rewards and costs is most effective when they are at intermediate levels, as extreme levels may lose their influence on behavior.

Question 26

What are the two interpretations of antisocial personality?

Answer 26

1. Extreme versions of normal personality traits found in everyone.
   
   2. A clinical perspective viewing antisocial personality as a mental disorder or pathology.

Question 27

What is antisocial personality disorder (APD) according to the DSM-5?

Answer 27

APD is characterized by a pervasive disregard for the rights of others and often has an early onset, with conduct disorder in childhood serving as a precursor.

Question 28

How does psychopathy differ from APD?

Answer 28

Psychopathy includes both behavioral and emotional characteristics and is more strongly linked to criminal behavior. It provides a more structured personality construct than APD.

Question 29

What are Cleckley’s three characteristic patterns of psychopaths?

Answer 29

1. Psychopaths appear outwardly normal, without hallucinations, delusions, or debilitating anxiety/guilt.
   
   2. They are unresponsive to social control, continuing problematic behavior despite punishment.
   3. Criminal behavior is not necessary for a psychopathy diagnosis.

Question 30

What corollaries follow from the assumption that a psychopath is not necessarily a criminal?

Answer 30

1. Not all criminals are psychopathic.
   
   2. Crime explanations do not fully explain psychopathy, and vice versa.
   3. Assessment and treatment for psychopaths and criminals should differ significantly.

Question 31

What role does conduct disorder play in APD?

Answer 31

Conduct disorder in childhood often serves as a precursor to APD, with early signs of disregard for others’ rights and societal rules.

Question 32

What implications does the distinction between psychopathy and criminality have for treatment?

Answer 32

• Treatment for psychopaths should focus on their emotional and personality traits.
  
  • Treatment for criminals should address their behavioral patterns and environmental influences.

Question 33

What is the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R), and who developed it?

Answer 33

The PCL-R was developed by Robert Hare (2003) to objectively assess psychopathy. It scores traits and behaviors associated with psychopathy on a 0–40 scale, where higher scores indicate a greater likelihood of psychopathy.

Question 34

What are the four factors of the PCL-R?

Answer 34

1. Interpersonal: Glibness, conning/manipulation.
   
   2. Affective: Lack of remorse, callousness.
   3. Lifestyle: Impulsivity, need for stimulation.
   4. Antisocial: Juvenile delinquency, criminal versatility.

Question 35

What is the difference between a dimensional and taxon view of psychopathy?

Answer 35

• Dimensional view: Psychopathy exists on a continuum, with varying levels of traits.
  
  • Taxon view: Psychopathy is a distinct category, with a specific cutoff score identifying someone as a psychopath.

Question 36

How does the PCL-R perform across different groups?

Answer 36

• Higher predictive validity for Caucasians, females, and psychiatric patients.
  
  • Lower predictive accuracy for minorities, males, and inmates.

Question 37

What is the significance of Hare’s position on psychopathy?

Answer 37

Hare emphasizes the dimensionality of psychopathy, recognizing that it exists on a spectrum rather than as a binary condition.

Question 38

How does the PCL-R define Factor 1 traits?

Answer 38

Interpersonal traits like glibness, manipulativeness, and arrogance, along with affective traits like lack of empathy and remorse.

Question 39

How does the PCL-R define Factor 2 traits?

Answer 39

Lifestyle traits like impulsivity and thrill-seeking, and antisocial traits like juvenile delinquency and criminal versatility.

Question 40

What is a noncriminal psychopath or “successful psychopath”?

Answer 40

A noncriminal psychopath exhibits psychopathic traits, such as charm, manipulation, and lack of empathy, but avoids engaging in criminal behavior. These traits may be channeled into socially acceptable or morally questionable fields, like business or politics.

Question 41

What traits distinguish successful psychopaths from criminal psychopaths?

Answer 41

Successful psychopaths:
1. Show strong affective and interpersonal traits (e.g., charm, manipulativeness).
2. Exhibit fewer behavioral traits (e.g., impulsivity, criminal actions).
3. Use their traits to achieve success without breaking the law.

Question 42

What are the environmental risk factors for psychopathy?

Answer 42

1. Early-onset antisocial behavior.
   
   2. Disrupted family dynamics.
   3. Childhood maltreatment.

Question 43

What are the biological underpinnings of psychopathy?

Answer 43

1. Prefrontal cortex deficits: Impair executive functions like planning and impulse control.
   
   2. Genetic influences: Twin studies suggest up to 69% heritability of psychopathy traits.
   3. Neurophysiological deficits: Impaired punishment processing and difficulty learning from negative consequences.

Question 44

What principles might improve the treatment of psychopaths?

Answer 44

1. Risk principle: Intensive interventions for high-risk offenders.
   
   2. Need principle: Focus on criminogenic needs (e.g., impulsivity, lack of prosocial skills).
   3. Responsivity principle: Use cognitive-behavioral interventions tailored to learning styles.

Question 45

Can children be labeled as psychopaths?

Answer 45

While psychopathy-like traits can appear in children (e.g., callous-unemotional traits, impulsivity), labeling them as psychopaths is controversial due to concerns about stigma and developmental changes.

Question 46

What are traits of juvenile psychopathy that persist into adulthood?

Answer 46

1. Callous-unemotional traits.
   
   2. Impulsivity.
   3. Sensation-seeking.

These traits show continuity with adult psychopathy features.

Question 47

How do psychopathy traits affect legal accountability?

Answer 47

Psychopathy’s neurobiological deficits (e.g., impaired decision-making) may raise questions about culpability, but courts often impose harsher punishments, viewing psychopathy as a sign of heightened dangerousness.

Question 48

What is the difference between primary and secondary psychopaths?

Answer 48

• Primary psychopaths: Have inherent traits like emotional coldness and lack of empathy.
  
  • Secondary psychopaths: Develop psychopathic traits due to environmental factors, such as trauma or adversity.

Question 49

How does Gottfredson and Hirschi’s theory view self-control?

Answer 49

They argue that low self-control alone explains criminal behavior, focusing on the inability to delay immediate gratification for long-term goals.

Question 50

What is the strength model of self-control?

Answer 50

Proposed by Baumeister et al., it compares self-control to a muscle that can be:
1. Strengthened through practice.
2. Depleted through overuse, leading to diminished performance in subsequent tasks.

Question 51

Why is self-control vital in addressing criminal behavior?

Answer 51

Offenders often have a lower baseline self-control, making them prone to impulsive decisions and quick energy depletion when exercising self-control. Improving self-control and fostering prosocial attitudes can reduce criminal tendencies.

Question 52

What does criminogenic needs mean in the context of psychopathy?

Answer 52

These are modifiable risk factors tied to criminal behavior, such as impulsivity, poor problem-solving, and procriminal attitudes, which can be addressed in treatment.

Question 53

What role does cognition play in the GPCSL model?

Answer 53

Cognition (i.e., the decision to act in a specific way) is central to the GPCSL model. Decisions are influenced by proximal factors, and even impulsive or automatic actions can often be traced back to earlier active choices.

Question 54

Why is adolescence a critical period for delinquent behavior?

Answer 54

Adolescence involves biological, cognitive, and emotional growth, with youths seeking autonomy. Delinquent behavior can appear as a way to:
1. Gain independence from parents.
2. Challenge authority.
3. Impress peers.

Question 55

What parental factors influence delinquency?

Answer 55

1. Modeling antisocial behaviors.
   
   2. Poor emotional bonds with children.
   3. Ineffective discipline or monitoring.
   4. Hostility in parenting, leading to association with delinquent peers.

Question 56

How do delinquent peers influence criminal behavior?

Answer 56

Delinquent peers:
1. Model and reinforce antisocial behaviors.
2. Discourage prosocial behaviors.
3. Increase the risk of criminal involvement through social rewards for deviance.

Question 57

What is the “Birds of a Feather” hypothesis regarding peer associations?

Answer 57

Proposed by Glueck and Glueck (1950) and supported by self-control theory:
* Delinquents naturally associate with others who share similar traits (e.g., low self-control).
* Peer associations do not significantly increase the likelihood of crime; individuals would engage in crime regardless.

Question 58

What is the Social Reinforcement Hypothesis regarding peer associations?

Answer 58

This hypothesis argues:
1. Delinquent peers reinforce criminal behavior through modeling and rewards.
2. Strong friendships among delinquents increase criminal actions by promoting procriminal attitudes and punishing prosocial behavior.

Question 59

How does the GPCSL model reconcile the two hypotheses about delinquency and peer associations?

Answer 59

The GPCSL model recognizes that:
1. Individuals with Antisocial Personality Patterns (APP) are predisposed to criminal behavior, regardless of peers.
2. However, APP traits also increase the likelihood of forming deviant peer groups, which further reinforce delinquent behaviors.

Question 60

What factors increase the likelihood of joining delinquent peer groups?

Answer 60

1. Poor self-control.
   
   2. Weak emotional bonds with parents.
   3. Failure in school or work.
   4. Exclusion from prosocial peer networks due to early aggressive behaviors.

Question 61

What psychological effects does social exclusion have on offenders?

Answer 61

1. Low self-esteem: Criminal groups provide a sense of inclusion, boosting self-esteem.
   
   2. Increased aggression: Social exclusion triggers hostility and aggression toward others.
   3. Reduced prosocial behavior: Excluded individuals become less charitable, cooperative, and helpful.

Question 62

Does gang membership increase criminal activity?

Answer 62

Yes. Studies, including longitudinal research, show that gang membership is associated with an increase in general criminal activity and violent crime, even though many members were delinquent before joining.

Question 63

What is the fluid nature of gang membership?

Answer 63

• Most members join and leave gangs over time.
  
  • 85% of boys in the Pittsburgh Youth Study left their gang within four years.
  • Only about 15% of members are core members deeply involved in gang activities.

Question 64

What are the risk factors for gang membership?

Answer 64

Risk factors include:
1. Disadvantaged backgrounds.
2. Dysfunctional families.
3. Procriminal attitudes.
4. Antisocial personality traits.
These factors apply to both boys and girls.

Question 65

Is psychopathy common among gang members?

Answer 65

No. Studies show:
* Only 4% of gang members meet psychopathy criteria, compared to 24% of non-gang members.
* Psychopathic traits, like isolation and lack of social bonds, are incompatible with gang dynamics.

Question 66

What are procriminal attitudes?

Answer 66

Procriminal attitudes refer to beliefs, thoughts, and feelings that justify criminal behavior in certain situations, such as cheating on taxes or using violence in response to insults. They focus on when breaking the law is seen as acceptable.

Question 67

What are the two perspectives on the development of procriminal attitudes?

Answer 67

1. Failure in conscience/moral reasoning: Focuses on psychological development, such as Freud’s superego and Kohlberg’s moral reasoning.
   
   2. Social environment influences: Highlights group norms, criminal subcultures, and social learning.

Question 68

How does Freud’s superego theory explain criminal behavior?

Answer 68

Freud suggested that criminal behavior might result from a lack of a developed superego (conscience), often due to disrupted caregiver attachments, leading to poor impulse control and failure to internalize social norms.

Question 69

How does Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning relate to procriminal attitudes?

Answer 69

Kohlberg proposed that delays in moral reasoning development can result in criminal behavior. Offenders often show moral reasoning at lower developmental stages compared to non-offenders.

Question 70

What role does social learning theory play in the development of procriminal attitudes?

Answer 70

Procriminal attitudes are learned through modeling and conditioning within immediate social contexts like family, peers, and school. Social learning theory emphasizes mechanisms of learning and individual differences.

Question 71

What are the two factors that increase the attitude-behavior consistency for procriminal attitudes?

Answer 71

1. Social Pressure: The influence of peer groups or societal norms.
   
   2. Attitude Accessibility: How easily and quickly an attitude comes to mind.

Question 72

What are the three classifications of procriminal attitudes?

Answer 72

1. Techniques of Neutralization: Mechanisms to minimize external punishment and self-blame.
   
   2. Identification with Criminal Others: Assigning positive value to criminal behavior and finding approval in procriminal groups.
   3. Rejection of Convention: Devaluing societal institutions, such as work or law enforcement, making crime appear more favorable.

Question 73

What are techniques of neutralization, and why are they important?

Answer 73

Techniques of neutralization are cognitive strategies offenders use to justify their actions, minimizing guilt and punishment. They allow individuals to engage in criminal behavior while knowing it’s wrong. Examples include denial of responsibility and condemnation of condemners.

Question 74

What are the five techniques of neutralization described by Sykes and Matza?

Answer 74

1. Denial of Responsibility: “I had no choice.”
   
   2. Denial of Injury: “Nobody was hurt.”
   3. Denial of the Victim: “They deserved it.”
   4. Condemnation of the Condemners: “The system is corrupt.”
   5. Appeal to Higher Loyalties: “I did it for my friends.”

Question 75

What does Identification with Criminal Others (IWCO) involve?

Answer 75

IWCO refers to valuing criminal behavior and seeking approval within criminal peer groups. It often involves pride in criminal actions and rejection of societal norms.

Question 76

What is the Rejection of Convention in procriminal attitudes?

Answer 76

It is the devaluation of social institutions like work, school, and law enforcement, reducing the appeal of conventional life and making crime seem like a more favorable alternative.

Question 77

Why are procriminal attitudes considered a dynamic risk factor?

Answer 77

Because they are modifiable, meaning changes in procriminal attitudes are associated with changes in criminal behavior.

Question 78

How do cognitive-behavioral interventions target procriminal attitudes?

Answer 78

These interventions focus on helping offenders:
* Identify their procriminal attitudes.
* Challenge and replace them with prosocial thoughts.
* Programs like Counter-Point integrate these principles to reduce recidivism.

Question 79

How do violent video games affect aggressive cognitions?

Answer 79

• All 13 studies reviewed found increased aggressive cognitions, such as hostile attributions and proviolence attitudes.
  
  • Supported by schematic processing theory and strengthened by better measurement tools and longer follow-ups.

Question 80

What is the impact of violent video games on aggressive affect?

Answer 80

• 12 out of 13 studies showed increased hostility and aggressive affect.
  
  • Effects align with arousal theory.
  • No studies have examined long-term emotional outcomes for children or adults.

Question 81

What do studies say about violent video games and prosocial behaviors or empathy?

Answer 81

• 7 of 9 studies reported decreases in prosocial behaviors, empathy, and sensitivity to aggression.
  
  • Effects are consistent with social–cognitive and arousal theories.
  • Research mostly involved adults, with limited data on children.

Question 82

What do we know about physiological and neurological outcomes related to violent video games?

Answer 82

• 5 of 8 studies found physiological effects (e.g., heart rate, skin conductance, blood pressure).
  
  • Only 2 studies explored neurological outcomes, finding effects but with insufficient evidence for conclusions.

Question 82

Is there evidence linking violent video games to delinquency and criminal behavior?

Answer 82

• Only 1 study addressed these outcomes, providing too little data for conclusions about links to delinquency or criminal behavior.

Question 83

What does research say about age and the effects of violent video games?

Answer 83

• Effects are observed across children, adolescents, and young adults.
  
  • Few studies focus on children under age 10, leaving insufficient data to determine developmental differences.

Question 84

Do violent video games affect males and females differently?

Answer 84

• Most studies did not analyze gender as a factor.
  
  • Limited findings suggest negative effects occur for both males and females, though gender-specific outcomes remain underexplored.

Question 85

What do studies reveal about the effects of violent video games on ethnically diverse populations?

Answer 85

Only one study focused on Hispanic adolescents, leaving insufficient data to draw conclusions about ethnicity and violent video game effects.

Question 86

Is there a link between the degree of violent video game exposure and aggression?

Answer 86

• 5 of 7 studies found that greater exposure correlates with higher aggression levels.
  
  • There is insufficient evidence to establish a clear dose-response relationship or exposure threshold.

Question 87

Do other risk factors moderate the effects of violent video games on aggression?

Answer 87

• Studies found that violent video game use predicts aggression even after accounting for other risk factors like antisocial traits or family conflict.
  
  • Limited evidence exists on interactions between violent video games and these risk factors.

Question 88

What characteristics of violent video games are understudied?

Answer 88

• Factors like plot, pacing, competition, and perspective remain poorly understood.
  
  • Their influence on aggression is unclear due to insufficient research.

Question 89

What is the conclusion of the link between violent video games and aggression?

Answer 89

Violent video game use is a documented risk factor for aggression but not for criminal behavior. While it contributes to negative social and cognitive outcomes, it is one of many factors influencing aggressive tendencies. Further research and balanced policymaking are needed to address these effects effectively.