Problem 1

Question 1

Conspiracy theory

Answer 1

Refers to the belief that some covert but influential agency is responsible for an unexplained event

–> based on prejudice + insufficient evidence

Question 2

Conspiracy theories can be more directly seen as matter of faith due to their lack of evidence.

How then are their arguments and beliefs held alive and reinforced ?

Answer 2

By resisting falsification and using circular reasoning

Question 3

Circular reasoning

Answer 3

Refers to an argument that restates rather than proves, by using the conclusion as on of its premises

–> reinforces conspiracy theories, confirmation bias

ex.: only a mentally ill person would kill so all killers are mentally ill

Question 4

Falsification

Answer 4

Refers to the ability of data to be disproved or otherwise explained

Question 5

Why can written reasoning make it hard to evaluate arguments objectively ?

Answer 5

1. Texts leave space for personal interpretation

2. Arguments are represented sequentially

Question 6

Before building an argument map it is useful to analyze a text at a microlevel.

For this, one can look for cues towards the relationships between the statements in the text, as it will contain signal or indicator words for … and … ?

Answer 6

1. Consequences/Conclusions
   ex. : so, therefore, hence
2. Premises/Reasons
   ex. : because, since, being as

Question 7

What can be useful when trying to determine the direction of the argument in the absence of signal words ?

Answer 7

The so/because test

ex.: Grass is green because it contains chlorophyll vs so it contains chlorophyll

Question 8

Name the 3 key components an argument map/tree usually includes.

Answer 8

1. Conclusion
2. Arguments/Premises PRO
3. Arguments/Premises CONTRA

Question 9

Contention

Answer 9

Refers to an idea that somebody claims is true

–> subtype of conclusion

Question 10

Reason/Premise

Answer 10

Refers to evidence for the contention

Question 11

Objection/Counterargument

Answer 11

Refers to evidence against the contention

Question 12

Conclusion

Answer 12

Refers to contention supported by a reason or refuted by a counterargument

Question 13

Single argument

Answer 13

Refers to an arguments that includes a single reason or objection

Question 14

Composite/Multiple argument

Answer 14

Refers to an argument that includes more than one reason or objection

Question 15

Convergent argument

Answer 15

Refers to an argument that includes 2 independent reasons supporting the conclusion

Question 16

Chain of reasoning

Answer 16

Occurs when the contention operates as the premise for a conclusion at a higher level

Question 17

Co-premises

Answer 17

When several premises/reasons together from a source of evidence for a conclusion

–> bridges the logical gab between conclusion + premise

Question 18

Dependent premises

Answer 18

Refer to syllogisms

–> form of co-premises

Question 19

Golden rule

Answer 19

Each single argument consists of 2 or more co-premises

–> necessity of co-premise to bridge gaps between premise + conclusion

Question 20

Rabbit rule

Answer 20

Each significant term that is part of the conclusion should be part of one of the premises

–> ensures connection between premise + contention

Question 21

Holding hands rule

Answer 21

A term that is part of one of the premises but not contention should also form part of the other premise

–> ensures a connection between co-premises

Question 22

Dispute

Answer 22

Refers to a claim to which several reasons + objections are linked

Question 23

Which are frequently encountered errors in building an argument ?

Answer 23

1. Difficulty determining whether 2 premises are independent or dependent
2. Using chains of reasoning when form of argumentation with dependent premises is appropriate
3. Representation of conditional constructions as a chain of reasoning

Question 24

Warrant

Answer 24

Refers to a justification why a particular premise provides support for a particular claim

Question 25

Which factors make conspiracy theories more likely to enfold ?

Answer 25

1. Uncertainty
2. Element of threat
3. Need for security/control
   - -> elimination of uncertainty
4. Need to maintain a positive image of the self + social groups
   - -> protecting cherished beliefs

Question 26

Fake news

Answer 26

Refer to headings that lead to false conclusions

–> click-bait

Question 27

Eco chamber bias

Answer 27

Beliefs are amplified or reinforced by communication and repetition inside a closed system

–> in an eco chamber one is able to seek out info that reinforces pre-existing views

ex.: cookies

Question 28

How can we counter conspiracy theories ?

Answer 28

Education

–> less educated + lower self esteem individuals are more prone to belief in them