Principles of Geology Flashcards
The study of earth, astronomical objects, rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time.
Geology
It deals with material, composition, structure, and understands the processes that work on and beneath the Earth’s surface.
Physical Geology
It deals with the planet’s geological history and relevance to the origin, events and life forms associated
Historical Geology
It states that earth’s landscape was shaped by great catastrophes. It was made from both a biblical perspective and a scientific point of view
Catastrophism
It states that process that existed in the present most likely to have happened in the past
Uniformitarianism
It is the process in which scientist gather facts through observations, and formulate hypotheses and theories
Scientific Method
An educated guess which has to be tested in order to be proven
Hypothesis
A well-tested and scientifically accepted hypothesis that best explains certain observable facts
Theory
It is the building block of matter
Atom
A particle with a positive charge in the nucleus
Proton
A particle with a negative charge orbiting the nucleus
Electron
A particle which has no charge and has the same number with protons
Neutrons
These refer to electrons that are found at the outermost shell of the atom that reacts to form chemical bonds
Valence Electron
Protons and electrons are equal in _____ but they differ in ____, thus both cancel each other
Magnitude, Polarity
These are group of atoms identical to each other having same number of protons in the nuclei
Elements
Number of natural elements
94
Number of synthetic elements produced from nuclear reactions
24
An atom or molecule with a net charge due to loss or gain of one or more electrons.
Ion
The sum of protons and neutrons in an atom.
Atomic Mass Number
The weighted average of atomic mass of all natural isotopes.
Atomic Weight
These are atoms with same number of protons but different number of neutrons
Isotope
A rules which states that atoms gain, share, or lose electrons to attain an outer shell with 8 electrons
Octet Rule
This happens when one atom gives up certain number of electrons forming negative-positive ions. Transfer of Electrons
Ionic Bonding
It is formed by ionic bonding; it consists of an orderly arrangement of oppositely charged ions assembled in a definite ratio that provides overall electrical neutrality
Ionic Compound
It is the sharing of a pair of electrons between atoms and the attraction is what binds them together. No ions involved in the process.
Covalent Bonding
The valence electrons are free to move from one atom to the other which exhibits sharing.
Metallic Bonding
It states that the universe came from a point in singularity 13.8 Billion years ago then exploded and expanded forming the stellar universe.
Big Bang Theory
The size of the Observable Universe
93 Billion Light Years across
A phenomenon where changes in the frequency is related to the observer moving away from a certain wave source
Doppler Effect
A powerful and luminous explosion of a star; remnant of a dead star
Supernova
A cloud of dust and gas occupying space between stars acting as a stellar nursery.
Nebula
A massive star that ran out of fuel and collapsed to its core crushing every proton and electron into a neutron.
Neutron Star
A neutron star with immensely powerful magnetic field.
Magnetar
A neutron star that spins so fast it collapses to a black hole
Blitzar
A star made of neutron matter that emits strong radio waves at regular intervals.
Pulsar
It is a region in space-time continuum where gravity is so strong not even light can escape
Black Hole
It is a energetic super-massive black hole at the center of a galaxy.
Quasar
A highly energetic radio burst from deep space.
Fast Radio Burst
It is a gravitationally bound system of the Sun and the objects that orbit around it.
Solar System
It states that the sun and all the planets began as a giant cloud of molecular dust (nebula) and gas with debris.
Nebular Hypothesis
It is a celestial body that is in orbit around the Sun which has: A sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body force
An equilibrium making it having a round shape
Cleared the neighborhood around its orbit.
Planet
A small, rocky objects that orbit the Sun ranging from dust size to hundreds of miles.
Asteroid
A known object that orbit a planet.
Satellite
It is a small, rocky metallic body smaller than an asteroid.
Meteoroids
These are meteoroids exposed in the atmosphere.
Meteor
These are remnants after impact in atmosphere.
Meteorite
These are bright, icy body that when passed to the Sun it releases gases.
Comets
It is the process of separating the different components within a planetary body as a result of a chemical/ physical behavior.
Planetary Differentiation
The heat that is continuously generated beneath the Earth’s surface is caused by the _______.
Decay of radioactive elements
It is the common boundary where the 4 systems interact.
Interface
It aims to study the Earth as a system composed of numerous interacting parts of subsystems. This attempts to integrate the knowledge of several fields
Earth System Science
It refers to any size group of interacting parts that form a complex whole.
System
It is a self-contained where nothing escapes and enters.
Closed System
It interacts with other systems where both energy and matter flow in and out of the system.
Open System
A system reacts to negative elements to preserve system with the goal of maintaining the system as it is.
Negative Feedback Mechanism
The system is enhanced or being driven by change where a stimulus is promoted.
Positive Feedback Mechanism
The layer which all gases were retained by Earth’s gravity shielding the planet from harmful solar radiation.
Atmosphere
Atmosphere is composed of _____ Nitrogen
78%
Atmosphere is composed of _____ Oxygen
20.98%
Atmosphere is composed of _____ Argon
0.93%
The lowest layer in the atmosphere which constitutes 75% of air.
Troposphere
It is the boundary between the troposphere and the next atmospheric layer.
Tropopause
It is 50 kms above sea level where ozone layer is found.
Stratosphere
The outer boundary of the stratosphere.
Stratopause
It is 50-80 kms above sea level where temperatures start to drop.
Mesosphere
It is the outer boundary of the mesosphere
Mesopause
About 70-80 kms above the surafce where cloud and water vapor are little to non-existent. It is also where auroras are found.
Thermosphere
The ionized part of the atmosphere found within the thermosphere and upper portion of the mesosphere.
Ionosphere
700-1,000 km above and the outermost portion of the planet where it interacts with solar winds.
Exosphere
It contains ice crystals with long, thin, wispy white streamers similar to a horse’s tail. It indicates a fair weather.
Cirrus
These are small rounded puffs that appear as long rows similar to that of fish scales. It indicates a fair but cold weather.
Cirrocumulus
These are thin-sheets thin enough for celestial objects to be seen. These come before 12-24 hours before rain.
Cirrostratus
Clouds of grayish-white forming in groups and associated with an upcoming thunderstorm despite this cloud is spotted in warm, humid weather.
Altocumulus
A blue-gray cloud associated with an incoming continuous rain or snow.
Altostratus
A uniform gray and covers almost all of the sky looking like a fog. It is associated with mists and drizzles.
Stratus
These are lumpy and gray clouds which are associated with drizzles and sometimes spread out to the sky.
Stratocumulus
Dark gray in color and associated with continuous rain or snow covering the sky with no visible edges.
Nimbostratus
Up to 10km high with a flat top and are associated with thunderstorm, heavy rain, snow, and hail
Cumulonimbus
up to 10km high with a flat top and are associated with thunderstorm, heavy rain, snow, and hail
Cumulonimbus
A puffy white or light gray cloud similar to floating cotton balls associated with fair to stormy weather.
Cumulus
A dynamic layer of the earth where most of the world’s water is found
Hydrosphere
Average Depth of Oceans
3.794 kms (12,447.51 ft.)
Total Compound Mass of water (regardless of state)
1.386 Billion cubic meters
Total cover of the world’s Oceans
71%
Percent freshwater in the world
3%
It is the largest of the four spheres with 6400 kms deep.
Geosphere
It is the outermost portion of the planet. It is categorized into two types namely: the continental and the oceanic crust
Crust
It is made of light granite or granodiorite, old, and sodium-potassium rich with 30-80 km thickness.
Continental Crust
Average Density and the Oldest age of the continental crust
2.7 grams/ cubic centimeter and 4 Billion years old
These are uplifted mountain ranges which are sites of tectonic convergence. In these sites as well contain volcanic island arcs.
Mountain Belts
These are active mountainous regions composed largely of volcanic rocks and deformed sedimentary rocks.
Island Arcs
These are undisturbed areas opposed to mountain belts which were eroded nearly to sea level.
Stable Interior
These are wide areas of deformed crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks
Shields
A stable platform where extensive regions of crystallized rocks are laid underneath by a sedimentary cover.
Cratons
A dark, dense, mainly made up of basaltic rocks with younger ages and is thin with only 3-10 km width.
Oceanic Crust
Age and density of the oceanic crust
180 Million years old and about 3 grams per cubic centimeter
First Layer of the Oceanic Crust
A Sequence of Unconsolidated Sediments
Second Layer of the Oceanic Crust
A Rock Unit composed of Basaltic lavas containing Pillow Basalts
Third Layer of the Oceanic Crust
Sheeted Dike Complexes
Fourth Layer of the Oceanic Crust
Rock Unit composed of Gabbro
These are series of sub-parallel intrusions of igneous rock forming a layer with the oceanic crust.
Sheeted Dike Complexes
A seafloor that is adjacent to landmasses.
Continental Margins
A sloping surface extending the shoreline-deep ocean basin. It is the flooded extension of a continent constituting 7.5% of the ocean floor.
Continental Shelf
It is the boundary between the continental and oceanic crusts; a steep drop-off extending from the outer edge of the continental shelf to the ocean floor.
Continental Slope
It is where the continental slopes merge to an incline covering about 10% of the ocean floor and composed of sediment cover.
Continental Rise
These are areas between continental and oceanic ridges.
Deep-Ocean Basins
It is a vast area of broad, smooth deep ocean basins with more than 11km deep.
Abyssal Plains
It is the lowest points on Earth adjacent to island arcs or mountain ranges; these are known sites of subduction.
Trenches
These refer to volcanic structures on the seafloor which most are considered extinct.
Seamounts
These are flat-topped submarine mountains or submerged extinct volcanoes.
Guyots/ Tablemounts
A large marine elevation above the surrounding seafloor.
Oceanic Plateau
These structures are formed by coral reefs engulfing eroded and submerged volcanoes.
Coral Atoll
A seafloor mountain system that are formed due to plate tectonics running about 65,000kms around the planet.
Oceanic Ridges (Mid-Oceanic Ridge)
A large elongated depression formed by downward displacement of block between nearly parallel faults or fault systems.
Rift Valley
This is the widest layer with 2,900 km thick making 85% of the world’s weight (87% volume and 68% of total mass); this region is peridotite-rich and is semi-solid.
Mantle
A region within the mantle that is 660kms thick and can be divided into asthenosphere and lithosphere.
Upper Mantle
It is 660kms from the core boundary and 2900 km from the crust. The rocks in this layer are capable of flow and are very hot.
Lower Mantle
The central 7,000 km diameter constituting 16% volume and 32% of the world’s mass; this is made up of Iron and Nickel.
Core
Average density of the core
11 grams per cubic centimeter
A cooler, strong-rigid outer layer making the crust and the upper mantle. Its average thickness is 100kms and 250kms in its oldest portions
Lithosphere
It is a highly viscous mechanically weak and ductile portion of the upper mantle which allows melting due to temperature and pressure balance making rocks behave like a soft plastic.
Asthenosphere
