Principles of evolutionary change Flashcards

Kapitel 2

1
Q

What is Natural Selection?

A

Non-random process where individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing their alleles to the next generation.

Kursboken:
The prime mover of evolutionary change. The name given by Darwin to what
is today considered to be differential gene replication. May more loosely be described as differential reproductive success of different phenotypes.

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2
Q

What is Genetic Drift?

A

A random change in allele frequencies in a population, often more pronounced in small populations. Includes the bottleneck and founder effects.

(Unlike natural selection, genetic drift does not take into account whether allele is beneficial or harmful to the individual)

Jesper: Genetic drift är random och har två subkategorier. Exempel är en stor asteroid.
Bottleneck effect
Founder effect

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3
Q

What is Gene Flow?

A

The transfer of alleles into or out of a population through immigration or emigration.

Jesper:
Gene flow är när en gås flyger till en annan gås population och sprider sina gener där. Som blandsaft som sprider sig i vatten (kan liknas med diffundering).

Kursboken:
The transfer of specific genes from one population to another.

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4
Q

Vad innebär Mendels lagar/Mendelian genetics?

A
  1. Inheritance is particulate (law of segregation) – each parent’s gamete (reproductive cell) has and passes on to offspring only one allele for a trait
  2. Traits are the result of combining independent alleles from the parents (independent assortment)
  3. The relationship between the genotype and phenotype depends on the dominance (Y) and recessiveness (y) of an allele and the composition of each trait – whether it is homozygous (yy/ YY) or heterozygous (Yy)
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5
Q

What is Independent Assortment?

A

Alleles for different traits are inherited independently of one another.

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6
Q

What is the Law of Segregation?

A

Each parent’s gamete passes only one allele for a trait to the offspring.

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7
Q

What is Artificial Selection?

A

A non-random process where humans guide the breeding of organisms to obtain desired traits.

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8
Q

What is the difference between Homozygous and Heterozygous?

A

Homozygous has two identical alleles for a trait, while heterozygous has one dominant and one recessive allele

Kursboken:
❏ Homozygous: Having identical alleles at the same locus on each of the paired chromosomes in a cell’s nucleus.
❏ Heterozygous: having different alleles at the same locus on each of the paired chromosomes in a cell’s nucleus.

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9
Q

What are Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs)?

A

Genetic variations where a single nucleotide is different in more than 1% of the population.

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10
Q

What is the Selfish Gene theory (Dawkins, 1976)?

A

Genes act in their own interest to enhance their survival and reproduction, even at the expense of the individual.

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11
Q

What is Reciprocal Altruism (Trivers, 1971)

A

A strategy where individuals help others with the expectation of receiving help in return in the future.

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12
Q

What is Group Selection Theory (Wynne-Edwards, 1962)?

A

The idea that natural selection can act on groups, favoring traits that benefit the survival of the group.

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13
Q

What is Kin-selected Altruism (Hamilton, 1966)?

A

Behaviors that increase the survival and reproductive success of an individual’s relatives.

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14
Q

What is Heritability?

A

The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that can be attributed to genetic differences.

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15
Q

What is the Bottleneck Effect?

A

A type of genetic drift where a population’s size is dramatically reduced, and the surviving individuals pass on a smaller genetic diversity.

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16
Q

What is the Founder Effect?

A

A type of genetic drift where a small group becomes isolated from the larger population, leading to a different allele frequency in the new population.

t ex: när bara svarta gäss skapar en population som tidigare var del av en population av blandade vita och svarta gäss

17
Q

What are Chromosomes?

A

Structures within cells that carry genetic information, composed of DNA and proteins.

18
Q

Vad är en fenotyp/phenotypes? Hur skiljer sig en fenotyp från en genotyp?

A

❏ Phenotype: De observerbara egenskaperna hos en individ, resultatet av genotyp och miljöpåverkan.
❏ Genotype: Den genetiska sammansättningen av en individ.

Fenotypen är den observerbara uttrycket av en organisms gener (dvs dess fysiska och beteendemässiga egenskaper) i kombination med miljöpåverkan. Det är de egenskaper vi ser och kan mäta hos en organism.

Fenotypen är resultatet av samspelet mellan en organisms genotyp (dess genetiska uppsättning) och dess miljö.

Genotypen är den kompletta uppsättningen gener som en individ bär på, medan fenotypen är de faktiska egenskaper som uttrycks. Två individer kan ha olika genotyper men ändå ha samma fenotyp för en viss egenskap. Detta beror på att vissa gener är dominanta och överrider effekten av andra gener, som kallas recessiva.

19
Q

What is Behavioral Genetics?

A

The study of how genetic variation influences phenotypes (variation in traits), including physical traits, cognitive abilities etc.

Investigates the mechanisms by which the environment influences gene expression, which can potentially contribute to the development and manifestation of behavioral traits and disorders

20
Q

What is Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS)?

A

A technique that scans SNP markers across the entire genome to identify genetic variations associated with specific traits or diseases.

21
Q

What is Behavioral Epigenetics?

A

The study of how environmental factors influence gene expression without changing the DNA sequence, affecting behavior and traits.

22
Q

What is Fitness in evolutionary terms?

A

An individual’s ability to survive, reproduce, and pass on their genes to the next generation.

23
Q

Hur förklarar man utvecklingen av beteenden och egenskaper som verkar gå emot reproduktiv framgång, till exempel extremt socialt beteende och altruism?

A

❏ The Selfish Gene
❏ Reciprocal altruism
❏ Kin-selected altruism
❏ Group selection theory

24
Q

Vad är heritabilitet och hur skiljer det sig från begreppet arv? Förklara med hjälp av ett exempel.

A

Heritabilitet mäter hur mycket av en egenskap som beror på genetik.

Heritabilitet (h²) mäter i vilken utsträckning variationer i en egenskap inom en population kan förklaras av genetiska skillnader mellan individer. Det är ett mått på hur mycket gener bidrar till individuella skillnader i en viss egenskap, inte huruvida egenskapen är ärftlig eller inte.

Arv, å andra sidan, handlar om hur egenskaper överförs från föräldrar till avkomma. En egenskap kan vara ärftlig utan att ha hög heritabilitet.

Exempel:
Att ha fem fingrar på varje hand är genetiskt bestämt och ärvs från föräldrar till barn. Men heritabiliteten för denna egenskap är mycket låg (h² = 0) eftersom det finns väldigt liten variation mellan människor i antalet fingrar. De få fall där variation förekommer (t.ex. färre än fem fingrar) beror oftast på miljöfaktorer som olyckor eller genetiska mutationer, snarare än på ärftliga genetiska skillnader.