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pe section b p1 > Principles and theories of learning and practice > Flashcards

Principles and theories of learning and practice Flashcards

1
Q

phases of learning - Fitts and Posner

phases of learning

A
  • learning is sequential and that we have to move through specific stages
  • coaches need to have a undertsanding of these phases to ensure success
  • cognitive phase - the first stage of learning used by a novice understanding and subroutines are explored by trial and error
  • **associative phase ** - this is the 2nd stage of learning as motor programmes are developed and performance is smoother
  • autonomous phase - the final stage of learning used by an expert when movement is detailed and specific
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2
Q

cognitive phase

phases of learning

A
  • the intial part of learning whereby the learner is trying to create a mental pictire of the skill
  • demonstrations and verbal explanations
  • motor programmes have no developed so will use trial and error
  • use extrinsic feedback
  • coaches shouldnt give to much info (infomation overload)
  • learners should be given guidance
  • seletive attention - the process of picking out important infomation and filtering out the less info
  • performer will be inconsistent and lack cooridation
  • need postive feedback
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3
Q

associative phase

phases of learning

A
  • usally takes longer to complete for the learner
  • some people never leave this phase
  • motor programmes develop and become smoother
  • begin to elimate mistakes are errors are fewer
  • increased flow of the skill attentending specific reviews
  • practiced is focused on refining the skill
  • subroutines are coordinated
  • interak/kinesthic feedback
  • more detalied specifc feedback
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4
Q

autonomous phase

phases of learning

A
  • achieved after effective practice
  • excute the skill without conscious though
  • fous on demands of the environment and sutable cues
  • more tactics and stratergies
  • respond in the correct ways to the appropriate stimuli
  • consistent
  • self confidence increases
  • less external factors are needed
  • specifc and highlight any errors made
  • if practice is not maintained the learner may regress into the associate phase
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5
Q

learning plateau

A

a period during performace when there are no signs of improvement, the performer does not appear to be getting better

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6
Q

stage 1 of the learning plateau

learning plateau

A
  • rate of learning is slow and the performace level is poor
  • performer is working out subroutines and possibly using trial and error
  • cognitive stage of learning
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7
Q

stage 2 of the learning plateau

learning plateau

A
  • rapid acceleration of learning
  • performer has begun to master the task and gain success
  • provide reinforcement and motivation
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8
Q

stage 3 of the learning plateau

learning plateau

A
  • no improvement in the rate of learning
  • performance has reached a plateau
  • performance maintains at the same level
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9
Q

stage 4 of the learning plateau

learning plateau

A
  • a period towards the end of the task when, in part due to fatigue, the performace begins to deteriorate
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10
Q

drive reduction

learning plateau

A
  • an end of task period when performance may get worse
  • occurs when the performer has gained success, but the intial drive to succeed has been lost
  • an extension of the task is needed to maintain motivation
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11
Q

causes for the plateau

learning plateau

A
  1. lack of motivation
  2. boredom
  3. coaching
  4. limit of ability
  5. targets set to low
  6. fatigue

Many Bees Can Look Towards Flowers

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12
Q

lack of motivation

causes of plateau

A

lack of incentives or extrinsic rewards may cause the performer to lose drive and energy

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13
Q

boredom

causes of plateau

A

repetitive nature of a close skill may cause boredom

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14
Q

coaching

causes of plateau

A

may issue incorrect instructions or use incorrect practice methods so that the skill is done correctly

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15
Q

limit of ability

causes of plateau

A

performer may not improve simply because they have reached the full extent of their ability

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16
Q

targets set to low

causes of plateau

A

the task may not allow the learner to use the full range of their skills

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17
Q

fatigue

causes of plateau

A

continous action, over extended periods, will result in tiredness , this will result in drop of performance

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18
Q

solutions to the plateau

learning plateau

A
  • extend the task into a new challenge to test the performer
  • give new goals and targets within the task
  • the players could find a new coach to rause performance
  • coach could offer more praise or postive reinforcement to privide motivation
  • take a rest to avoid fatigue
  • concept of the plateau could be explained to the performer, they may then take reponsibility for their lack of improvement
  • more variety added to the task
  • could get some feedback to help improve performance and motivation
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19
Q

insight learning - gestaltist theory

cognitive theory - insight learning

A
  • using expirence and undertsanding to solve problems relating to the whole skill
  • performer uses existing knowledge to form an idea of how to dealwith problematic sporting situations
  • the performer should then put this idea into practice to solve the problem
  • EXAMPLE - 3000m race , if one opponent has a fast 400m, you may wish to set off at a quicker pace in order to negate the fast finish from your opponent
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20
Q

insight theory - key features

cognitive theory - insight learning

A
  • concentrates on the whole task - good to use in realistic situations
  • self satisfication - if the tactic has worked or been achieved the performer may feel pretty good about themselves
  • provides intrinsic motivation on the performer
  • poses questions to the performer but this is not trial and error
  • encourages the performer to think for themsleves
  • may generate more undertsanding o the actions required
  • better than just being told by the coach
  • use cognitive process
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21
Q

operant conditioning

behaviourism - skinner operant conditioning

A
  • the use of reinforcement to ensure that correct response are repeated
  • commonly known as the behaviourist theory
  • attempts to explain how actions can be linked to stimuli (s-r bond)
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22
Q

skinners rats

behaviourism - skinner operant conditioning

A
  • he belived that behaviour could be modified or conditioned if driected towars a stimulus
  • skinners experiments involved observing rats in a cage. the cage was fitted with mechanisms that delivered food
  • the rat would press the lever and a food pellet would drop, at first they hit it by accident however they quickly learned it provided them with a reward
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23
Q

operant conditioning in sport

behaviourism - skinner operant conditioning

A
  • based on trial and error - trying multiple methods in a tennis serve
  • a coach will manipulate the enervironment using operant conditioning to ensure that the desired response occured
  • EXAMPLE - placing cones in the service box as a target to hit, gradually move it back
  • satisfier - a coach will offer satisfier to shape behaviour so that it is repeated (postive reinforcement)
  • annoyer - a coach will offer an annoyer when the incorrect response is shown so that the response will not be reapeted (punishment)
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24
Q

basic prinsiple of operant conditioning

behaviourism - skinner operant conditioning

A
  • correct actions are reinforced and strenghtend
  • success acts as a satisfier and will strenghten correct actions
  • if you reward a successful outcome, they are then likely to be reapted
  • incorrect actions can be weakened (negative feedback)
  • if an unsuccessful action is ignored , or given an annoyer, such as criticism they may avoid this in the future
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25
Q

stimulus repsonse/s-r bond

behaviourism - skinner operant conditioning

A
  • strenghtening the link between the stimulus and the response
  • EXAMPLE - when a subtle is returned high in the air in badminton , the correct response would be to smash it
  • by linking the appropriate response to the stimulus the actions can be learned
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26
Q

reinforcement

behaviourism - skinner operant conditioning

A
  • the process that causes a reponse or behaviour to reoccur by forming and strenghtening the s-r bond
  • postive reinforcemnt, negatve reinforcement and punishments are used to shape behaviours and form s-r bonds
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27
Q

postive reinforcement

behaviourism - skinner operant conditioning

A
  • pleasant stimulus after the correct response
  • increase the likelihood of correct response occuring again
  • may offer motivation to continue repeating such success
  • may use tanguble or intangible rewards
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28
Q

negative reinforcement

behaviourism - skinner operant conditioning

A
  • taking away an unpleasant stimuli after the correct response
  • EXAMPLE - withdrawing negative critism when the performer does something well
  • a coach who is being a performer negative feedback may go quiet when they begind to do somethign well
  • this is reinforcement as it increases the changes of the correct repsonse being reapeted
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29
Q

punishment

behaviourism - skinner operant conditioning

A
  • an unpleasant stimuli to prevent incorrect actions recurring
  • EXAMPLE - football player receiving a red car
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30
Q

practice method for operant condtioning

behaviourism - skinner operant conditioning

A
  • a coach must use whole or whole part whole practice to isolate key aspects of the task
  • mental practice can also be used to go over the correct aspects of the task
  • use of these mthods can help to chape behaviour
31
Q

observational learning

social learning - bandura observational learning

A
  • observational or social learning involves copying the behaviour of the others
  • it is the way most of our learning takes place
  • behaviour is liekly to be copied if demonstrated and reinforced by a role model or significant others
32
Q

role models

social learning - bandura observational learning

A
  • essential for role model to be postive
  • behavioural characteristics of that person should be inspirational and exemplars for others to follow
  • it is believed that if the role model is of the same gender as yourself, you are more likely to copy and learn from it
33
Q

visual guidance

social learning - bandura observational learning

A
  • form of visual guidance - associated with the replication of a demonstration
  • the aim is to ensure the learner has a visual image of how to perform the skill ( which can be copied or matched )
  • learn by imitation
  • much more interetsing and engaging than verbal explanations (infomation overload)
34
Q

which phase of learning is observational learning

social learning - bandura observational learning

A
  • important at the congnitive phase of learning
  • easier for a novice to undertsand a visual demonstration than verbal cues
  • learner will be more motivated by the exhibiton
  • at the autonomous phase a demonstration is useful in highlighting details and specific points in performance
35
Q

banduras model of observational learning

social learning - bandura observational learning

A
  • models behaviours and demonstrations are likely to be copied when ;
  • they are postiely reinforced
  • close to appriopriate social norms (performer maybe someone of similar ability)
  • they are powerful , visually and physically
  • they are consistent
  • they are relevant
36
Q

four elements of observational learning

social learning - bandura observational learning

A
  • attention
  • retention
  • motivation
  • motor reproduction
37
Q

attention

social learning - bandura observational learning

A
  • make the demonstration attractive to the performer
  • performer needs to focus on relevant cues
  • infomations given should be loud and clear and given by a significant others
  • ensure you point each funtion/key point and explain the benefits of this
38
Q

retention

social learning - bandura observational learning

A
  • ability to remeber important infomation and recall from the meory system
  • learners should be able to break key infomations into chunks
  • demonstration needs to be meaningful and relevant
  • learners should attempt the skill straight away after a demonstration
  • mental image of the skill is still fresh in the learners mind
  • use of a role model may ensure accurate demo is shown
39
Q

motor production

social learning - bandura observational learning

A
  • making sure the player is capable physically and mentally performing the task
  • learner should be given time to practice and over learn the skill before moving on
  • give the performer immediate oppurtunity to practice
  • the task should be appropriate to the level of the learner, tasks can be made more challenging as the learner improves
40
Q

motivation

social learning - bandura observational learning

A
  • is the drive to copy the demonstartion
  • motivate the learner by giving praise, rewards or offering postive feedback
41
Q

social development theory (Vygotsky)

social development theory (Vygotsky)

A
  • learning by association with others
  • interaction with others plays a vital role in learning
  • in sport skills can be learned from the coaches and teachers
  • MKO can give advice and direct examples which can influence learning ; degree of effort , healthy lifestyle , clearn communications
42
Q

inter-psychological learning

social development theory (Vygotsky)

A
  • learning from others externally
  • during development , the skills are learned form the coach
  • the learners use an MKO to get advice, feedback and tactical knowledge
  • once external advice has been absorbed , learning can take place
43
Q

intra-psychological learning

social development theory (Vygotsky)

A
  • learning using others or an MKO to develop knowledge
  • once external advice has been absrorbed learning can take place internally
  • the learner will now iuse cognitve aspects of skill acquistion to internlly analyse , think about and contruct actions based on what they have learned externally
44
Q

contructivism (Vygotsky)

contructivism (Vygotsky)

A
  • the building up of learning stages, based on current level of performance
  • wokring with others more expirences than yourself can enable you to add new actions to one you already know
  • during intra-psychological laerning, the learner must assess what level of performance they are working at, in order to move on
  • a MKO or coachmay help to give advice as the skills become more advnaced
45
Q

EXAMPLE of contructivism (Vygotsky)

contructivism (Vygotsky)

A

1. what can i do alone? - dribble a hockey ball and hold the stick correctly
2. what can i with help - struggle to control the bal when passed to them, need help from coach or teamate
3. what can i not do yet - cannot dribble the ball when faced by an opponant , learner needs to copy significant other and decide on the next course of action based on expirence and expectation

46
Q

zone of proximal development

contructivism (Vygotsky)

A
  • the next stage of learning based on the performers needs, expectations and current level of performace (what can i not do yet?)
  • an assessment of what they need to do next to learn the skill
  • the learner will use three levels of performance to assess what they need to impove
47
Q

personality

personality - trait theory

A
  • a unique psychological make-up
  • each person has their own personality profile, which has implications for the way coaches and players shoudl approach training competitions
  • some performers will have similar personality profile to others
  • undertsanding these differences can help make performance better
48
Q

nature

personality - trait theory

A

characteristics are innate

49
Q

nuture

personality - trait theory

A

characteristics are learned

50
Q

trait theory

personality - trait theory

A
  • suggests that innate characteristics produce conistent behaviour
  • an individual is born with innate characteristics
  • stable , enduring and stay the same in different situations
  • behaviour is said to be consistent
  • trait theory attempts to predict what the person is going to do and respond
  • EXAMPLE - an extroverted netball player , will be extroverted in tarining and playing
51
Q

trait theory negatives

personality - trait theory

A
  • can behaviour always be predicted?
  • this theory does not take into account a personality change
  • personality and behaviour can change depending on the situation - state
  • EXAMPLE - a footballer could be aggressive after being fouled , but calm in a post match interview
52
Q

social learning approach

personality - social learning approach

A
  • suggests that behaviour is learned from signifcant others by socialising
  • rather than being born with characteristics , we learn them from other people
  • especiallt those we hold in high esteem or role models ect
  • personality traits can be developed by associatin with other people and picking up their behaviour
  • SOCIALISATION
  • linked to observational theory
  • EXAMPLE - young footballers copying professionals
53
Q

more likly to copy….

personality - social learning approach

A
  • learn reinforced behaviour that is seen as successful and powerful
  • copy behaviour that is consistenlty shown to us
  • if witnessed live not through media
54
Q

personality - social learning approach

A

OBSERVE
IDENTIFY
REINFORCE
COPY

55
Q

interactionist perspective

personality - interactionist perspective

A
  • combines trait theory and social learning theory to predict behaviour
  • attempts to explain ; how personalities are developed , how athletes can be infulenced by gentic and environmental
  • traits we are born with are adapted acording to situation
  • helps coaches by predictiing how a player will react
  • conistent traits can be adapted to the situation from the typical response
56
Q

interactionist perspective formula

personality - interactionist perspective

A
  • behaviour change and suggests behaviour is adapted to suit the situation
  • lewins formula B=f(P x E)
  • behvaiour is a funtion of personality and environment
57
Q

the hollander approach

personality - the hollander approach

A
  • suggest that personality is made up of 3 features ; the core (you) , typical response , role - related behaviour
58
Q

the core

personality - the hollander approach

A
  • represents the values and beliefs of the indivudal
  • is stable and solid; unlikely to change
  • EXAMPLE - belief in the benifits of playing in a team sport are underlying
59
Q

typical response

personality - the hollander approach

A
  • the use of inherent traits disolayed to specific situations
  • these are the usual responses the player would make in a given situation
60
Q

role - related behaviour

personality - the hollander approach

A
  • suggest that the performer might adapt to a very specifc role when the situation demands it
  • implies that firther chnaged to behaviour may be needed as the situation demands
  • the more the environment has an influence , the more behvaiour is likely to change
  • behaviour does influence behaviour
61
Q

example of hollander approach

personality - the hollander approach

A
  • core - ath the players core they may have values of a strong work ethic and is always prepared to work very hard for the team
  • typical response - the player typically responds to attacking situations by making the effort to make various runs off the ball
  • role related behaviour - in a close game , when the team are under pressure the plater will track back and employ the role of the defender to help the team
62
Q

credulous approach

A

when the link between personality and behaviour is accepted (trust theories)

63
Q

sceptical approach

A

when the link between personality and behaviour is doubted (doubt theories)

64
Q

how the interactionist perspective can improve performance

A
  • coach may predict unacceptable and agressive behaviour and remove a player from that situation
  • a coach could identigy situations that cause inappropriate actions or drop off in performace
  • a coach could replicate these conditions in training to prepare and the performer for this
  • a player nervous of being watched by a crowd could be observed in practice to become accustomed to this
  • this approach can be used to chnage player behaviour by encourging player to adapt to specifc circumstances
  • a coach can use support and encourgament to do this
65
Q

attitudes

attitude formation

A
  • a value aimed at an attitude object
  • an attitude can be an opionion/what they think about something
  • a value or belief towards something
  • the something is reffered to in psychological terms as an attitude object
  • a mental state of readiness towards an attidue object
  • EXAMPLE - having a belief about referees
66
Q

attitude formation

attitude formation

A
  • formed by association with others by picking up their opionons and values (socialisation)
  • learn attitudes from significant others such as friends, parents or role models
  • likely to be learned if the behaviours is reinforced or repeated several times
  • we can becomes familiar with these attitudes of others and accept them as normal
  • praise from a coach can help deveolp a postive attitude towards your sport
  • negative attitude can occur when they are negative role models
  • if no reinforcemnt offered from coach then negative attitude is formed
67
Q

triadic model

attitude formation

A
  1. cognitive part
  2. affective part
  3. behavioural part
68
Q

cognitive part

attitude formation - triadic model

A
  • the most deep rooted part of the attitude and is simply what you think
  • this part represents your own beliefs
  • EXAMPLE - most sport performers believe in their ability to win the game before they compete
69
Q

affective part

attitude formation - triadic model

A
  • concerns the feelings and emotions of the player and how those feelings are interpreted
  • shown when a player enjoyed taking part in training and playing
  • EXAMPLE - the feelign after you have had a good workout
70
Q

behavioural part

attitude formation - triadic model

A
  • this reflects what you do
  • it is shown by actions and habits of the performer
  • EXAMPLE - a player who trains in the week and plays every weekend displays a good behavioural attitiude
71
Q

attitude change

attitude formation

A
  • postive attitude needs to be encourages so particapants maintain motivation and effort to continue to particapte in sport
  • however not all attitude are postive
  • these two concepts used to help change attitudes ; cognitve dissonance , persuasive communication
72
Q

cognitive dissonance

attitude change - cognitve dissonance

A
  • this method belives that an attitude is former when the three compondents of the triadic model sit in harmony with one another
  • by changing one component will create conflict and will cause psycholgical discomfort
  • dissonance- creates a conflict in thinking that causes a lack of harmony and gives an uneasy feeling
73
Q

how cognitve dissonance is achieved

attitude change - cognitve dissonance

A

new infomation being given to the performer to cause unease and motivate change

  1. coach attempts to put pressure on the performer regarding a negative attitude component in the hope the performer becomes motivated to change their existing attitiude
  2. using rewards as reinforcemnt may increase motivation
  3. a coach could present infomation eith new activity so the players begin to question their current attitudes , it could motivate them to change
  4. the coach could bring in a specialist or role model to encourage particaption and attitude
74
Q

persuasive communication

attitude change - persuasive communication

A
  • an effective communication to promote change
  • communication to performers need to be relevant and important; the messages need to be understood
  • the person communicating the message needs to be of high importance, perhaps a role model or expert so the impact of the messae is high
  • the timing of the message is critical , after a loss or a poor performance , this could make the performer realise something needs to change
  • postive attitudes give postive outcomes so learning and controlling attitude behaviour is an important way of ensuring sporting sucess

pe section b p1 (4 decks)

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