Preparation And Training For Successful Performance

Question 1

Protein (legal)

Answer 1

• useful for those who struggle to fit in regular meals into busy schedules
• increases the rate of muscle growth and repair
• too much can put pressure on the kidneys

Question 2

Herbal Remedies (legal)

Answer 2

• they can reduce body fat, increase hormone levels and increase muscle mass to those that enhance energy
• they can react adversely with prescription drugs
• can test positive for banned substance

Question 3

Bicarbonate Of Soda (legal)

Answer 3

• the pH of the blood will increase making it more alkaline
• it can neutralise the negative effects of lactic acid
• lactic acid system can be extended so performers can work at a higher intensity for longer
• can result in bloating, diarrhoea, stomach cramps abs nausea

Question 4

Caffeine (legal)

Answer 4

• a mild stimulant that occurs naturally
• it prevents muscle fatigue and increases the ability of the muscles to mobilise
• it is used by runners and cyclists
• it can lead to dehydration, sleep deprivation and abdominal cramping

Question 5

Water and Electrolyte balance (legal)

Answer 5

• water is essential part of an athletes diet
• can allow glucose levels to be maintained- replace all lost fluids as it can cause fatigue and cramp
• without water blood can become thicker- slower blood flow
• body then beats faster putting the body under great stress

Question 6

EPO (illegal)

Answer 6

• recombinant erythropoietin is a synthetic product that mimics the body’s naturally occurring hormone EPO which is produced by the kidneys and stimulates body’s manufacture of red blood cells
• used in cycling and running
• EPO stimulates bone marrow to produce more red blood cells- increase oxygen carrying capacity
• can increase VO2 max
• however can lead to clotting and heart failure

Question 7

Anabolic Steroids (illegal)

Answer 7

• hormones that are related to male hormone testosterone
• used for power and strength performers
• growth in lean muscle mass
• they can train harder and recover quicker
• can cause liver damage, heart failure and increased aggression

Question 8

Human Growth Hormone (illegal)

Answer 8

• a hormone that mimics the body’s naturally occurring growth hormone that facilitates protein synthesis and increased lean muscle mass
• increases strength
• decreases body fat
• however it can lead to an enlargement in internal organs- the heart- failure
• high blood pressure
• cancer risk

Question 9

Beta Blocker (illegal)

Answer 9

• a group of hormones that are used to lower metabolic activity reduce heart rate and blood pressure and therefore help steady nerve and stop trembling
• used by shooters and snooker players
• can lead to low blood pressure and chronic fatigue

Question 10

Creatine (legal)

Answer 10

• it increases the levels of phosphatecreatine in the muscle
• they boost maximum strength and lean muscle mass
• sprinters and weightlifter use this
• it can result in abdominal cramps and diarrhoea

Question 11

Continuous training

Answer 11

• low intensity rhythmic exercise that uses large muscle groups

+

• time efficient
• easy to follow
• less chance of injury

-

• athletes may need to train at higher intensities
• may not be specific

Question 12

Fartlek training

Answer 12

• a form of continuous training where the intensity or speed of the activity is varied throughout the session from walking to sprinting

+

• adds variety of pace
• higher intensities can be achieved

-

• not specific to all sports
• may increase risk of injury

Question 13

Interval training

Answer 13

• an intermittent training regime involving periods of alternating exercise and rest

+

• adds variety
• sport specific
• train at higher intensities

-
- more recovery time may be needed

Question 14

Weight training

Answer 14

• an intermittent training method that uses free weights or resistance machines to overload the body

+

• improves all strength and power
• can replicate sporting actions

-

• greater risk of injury due to higher intensities
• specialised equipment is needed
• more recovery time may be needed

Question 15

Circuit training

Answer 15

• a general conditioning activity in which a series of exercises are used to work different muscle groups

+

• large number can perform at once
• can develop a number of components of fitness

-

• large facility and equipment
• may not meet the needs of some activities

Question 16

Plyometrics

Answer 16

• a type of training designed to improve power, strength and speed
• involves bounding, hopping and jumping
• the aim is to preload the muscle by taking it through an eccentric contraction which is rapidly followed by a concentric contraction
• elastic energy is formed in the eccentric contraction
• the quicker the process is the more effective it becomes

Question 17

How Plyometrics works

Answer 17

• muscle spindles are very effective proprioreceptors that lie between skeletal muscles fibres
• during the eccentric stage the muscle spindle stretches as well and sends a impulse to the CNS- informing about the muscle lengthening
• a stretch reflex will be used to control the movement

Question 18

The advantages and disadvantages of Plyometrics

Answer 18

+

• good way of developing power and elastic strength
• can develop power in lower and upper body
• actions can be made to replicate sporting action

-

• high intensity increasing injury risk
• technique is essential- injury
• more recovery time needed

Question 19

PNF (Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation)

Answer 19

• an advanced stretching technique used to improve flexibility and mobility
• must be done with a partner
• is very effective as it takes advantage of muscles safety mechanisms
• muscle spindles detect the length and the rate of change of length of muscle fibres
• when muscles stretch so does the spindle
• sensory info is sent to the CNS triggering that stretch reflex
• Golgi Tendon Organs are other receptors used
• if muscle tension is exceeded they will initiate relaxation- antogenic inhibition
• as these override the stretch reflex the window of relaxation is extended allowing for greater stretch

Question 20

Altitude Training

Answer 20

• a type of training usually above 2 500m above sea level
• partial pressure of oxygen is much lower so the body compensates more by breathing more quickly and deeply to increase blood-oxygen concentrations
• heart rate also increases to deliver more oxygen
• these responses occur straight away
• adaptions include increased red blood cells therefore more haemoglobin
• when back to see level the benefits last for 6 to 8 weeks
• oxygen carrying capacity increases as well
• altitude tents are now used by elite athletes
• however training at the same intensity at altitude compared to sea level is very hard due to the decreased oxygen
• detaining is needed

Question 21

Advantages and Disadvantages of altitude training

Answer 21

+

• increased haematocrit
• increased haemoglobin
• enhanced oxygen transport

-

• expensive
• altitude sickness
• training at high intensities is difficult
• detaining
• any benefits are soon lost at sea levels

Question 22

Glycogen Loading

Answer 22

• the manipulation of the dietary intake of carbohydrate prior to come petition so that muscle glycogen stores are maximised
• it is favoured by endurance athletes as it seeks to elevate the glycogen stores above their resting levels which facilitates effective resynthesis of ATP via the aerobic pathway
• it involves depleting glycogen stores 7 days prior to the event
• then followed by 3 days of low carb intake whilst performing some type of tapering exercise
• the days leading up to the competition should involve a diet with a lot of carbs and little to no exercise
• the consumption of water is key as it helps facilitate glycogen synthesis and storage

Question 23

Advantages and Disadvantages of Glycogen Loading

Answer 23

+

• increased glycogen synthesis
• increased muscle glycogen
• increased endurance capacity
• delays fatigue

-

• water retention and bloating
• possible weight increase
• fatigue and muscle soreness
• irritation during depletion stage

Question 24

Principles of training

Answer 24

Specificity
Progression 
Overload
Reversibility
Tedium
FITT
Warm up/cool down 
Individuality
Moderation
Periodisation

Question 25

Periodisation

Answer 25

• the organisation of training into blocks and cycles which each have a particular focus and enable optimal physiological and psychological peak to be reached during major competition
• it involves manipulating the type of training, volume and intensity

The 3 cycles
MACROCYCLES
- the long term performance goals

MESOCYCLES

• last between 2 to 8 weeks
• it usually has a certain focus like speed for example

MICROCYCLES

• last a week in duration
• they provided more detailed info

Question 26

Heatloss

Answer 26

Conduction

• heat lost through physical contact
• warmer to a cooler environment

Convection
- losing heat through contact between skin and moving air or water molecules

Radiation
- losing heat heat via infrared Ray’s where heat is transferred to the environment shutout physical contact with another object

Evaporation
- body loses heat through the conversion of liquid to a vapour

Question 27

Explain how the majority of energy used during the race would be provided and outline the process of ‘glycogen loading’ that may be used by performers to improve performance (14 marks)

Answer 27

A.Majorityproducedbytheaerobicsystem/oxygen

B. Glycolysis/Anaerobicglycolysis

C. Carbohydrates/glycogen/glucose

D. brokendownintopyruvate/

E. SomeATPproduced/2ATP

F. Krebs cycle

G. Fats/triglycerides/fatty acids/glycerol

H. Betaoxidation

I. Oxidation of acetyl-coenzyme-A/Citric acid/ production of CO2

J. Electron transport chain

K. Water/H2Oformed/hydrogenionsformed(H+)/hydrogen/protons

L. Large quantities of ATP produced or resynthesised/34-36 ATP

The process of glycogen loading, addressing points such as:

M. Aim to increase (muscle) glycogen stores

N. Delaysfatigue/increasesendurancecapacity/increased ATP/energy production/hitting the wall

O. (Method 1) Reduce glycogen levels

P. Achievedbyincreasedendurancetraining

Q. Following three days of low carbohydrate diet

R. Andtapering/reductionintraininglevels

S.Fewdaysbeforecompetitionhighcarbohydrateleveldiet/ eg pasta

T. Trained/elite/equiv athletes may rest for several days before eating high carbohydrate diet

U.Increased water consumption helps the process

V.Method2)daybefore3minutehighintensityexercise

W. Carb window opens

X. Immediately/within 20 minutes intake high carbohydrate diet

Question 28

Explain the possible causes of fatigue during a race. (3 marks)

Answer 28

A. Build up of lactic acid/accumulation of hydrogen ions/OBLA

B. Glycogen depletion/needed for glycolysis

C. Dehydration/reduces blood flow/loss of electrolytes/increase body temperature

D. Reduced levels of calcium

E. Reduced levels of acetylcholine/slows nerve impulse and inhibits contraction

F. Lack of PC stores

Question 29

Explain how a swimmer would use ‘periodisation’ to prepare for competitions. (4 marks)

Answer 29

A. Cycle based on World Championships/Olympics
B. Possible to plan for double periodisation
C. Preparation phase/pre season training – involves development of base levels of fitness/general conditioning/quantity rather than quality
D. Competitive phase – refinement of skills/ maintenance of fitness levels/quality rather than quantity/relevant examples of training modifications
E. Tapering/peaking – preparation for specific competition/mainly skill focus
F. Transition phase – active rest/out of season recovery period
G. Macro-cycles – long term planning/yearly/two yearly cycle
H. Meso-cycles – periods of two to eight weeks/months
I. Micro-cycles – periods of a week/day/individual training sessions

Question 30

a) Describe the structural and/or physiological differences between elite marathon runners and non-elite joggers. (5 marks)

Answer 30

1. Increased VO2 max
2. Increased myoglobin content/better able to store oxygen
3. More/bigger mitochondria
4. More oxidative enzymes
5. Increased stores of (useable) glycogen
6. Improved ability (more enzymes) to oxidise fat
7. Cardiac hypertrophy
8. Decreased resting heart rate/bradycardia
9. Increased stroke volume/ejection/fraction/maximum cardiac output
10. Increased blood volume/haemoglobin/red blood cell content
11. Increased capillary density/capilliarisation
12. Increased hypertrophy/hyperplasia of slow-twitch muscle fibres
13. Increased a-vO2 difference
14. Increase in maximal minute ventilation
15. Increased pulmonary diffusion capacity
16. Increased lactate accumulation/delayed or higher OBLA/lactate threshold
17. Reduced % body fat

Question 31

(b) Altitude training is used by some marathon runners as part of their physiological preparation. Discuss whether altitude training is always beneficial to marathon runners. (5 marks)

Answer 31

1. Reduced pO2 at altitude/less oxygen in air/available/lower O2 concentration
2. Body produces erythropoetin/EPO
3. More red blood cells/haemoglobin
4. Greater oxygen transport capacity/carry more oxygen
5. Greater stamina/cardio-respiratory endurance/aerobic capacity/increased VO2
   max/aerobic respiration
   (sub-max 3)
6. Reduced pO2 – unable to train as hard as previously/at sea level
7. Altitude sickness/dehydration/too cold
8. Loss of fitness/quicker to exhaustion while at altitude/detraining effect
9. Therefore aerobic performance deteriorates
10. Requires several weeks/months to be effective
11. Psychological problems of lifestyle/isolated/expensive/interferes with normal
    training

Question 32

Elite performers will use periodisation to organize their training programmes so that they are at their peak performance for a competition. What do you understand by the term periodisation? (3 marks)

Answer 32

1. Dividing training into periods/sections for specific purpose;
2. (Macrocycle) – long term plan/goal for single year/Olympics/World
   Championships;
3. (Mesocycle) – monthly/weeks/period of training on particular aspect;
4. (Microcycle) – weekly/days/individual training sessions to improve specific
   area;
5. If named all three cycles without explanation;
6. Training year divided into competitive phase/peaking/tapering/playing
   season;
7. Involving preparation phase – pre-season training;
8. Transition phase – active rest/out of season recovery. 3

Question 33

Explain why some athletes, such as marathon runners, may choose to spend time training at altitude. (3 marks)

Answer 33

1. Improved endurance/stamina/aerobic capacity/VO2 max;
2. Reduced concentration/partial pressure of oxygen at altitude;
3. Compensation through increased red blood cells/haemoglobin;
4. Erythroprotein;
5. Enhanced oxygen carrying capacity (on return to sea level)

Question 34

What are the potential problems associated with altitude training? (3 marks)

Answer 34

1. Reduced pO2 – training very hard;
2. Loss of fitness/detraining effect;
3. Increased lactate production/accumulation;
4. Altitude sickness/weeks to acclimatise;
5. Solution – live at altitude and train at sea level;
6. Other physiological e.g. blood viscosity/psychological/social/environmental
   factors.

Question 35

Marathon runners may use carbo-loading as a means to improve performance. What do you understand by this term and why might marathon runners need to do this? (3 marks)

Answer 35

1. Need to store more than is normal;
2. Insufficient glycogen for duration of race;
3. Required as energy source;
4. Dietary manipulation – reduce intake of Carbohydrates then
   overcompensate;
5. May be combined with alterations to training programme/run to exhaustion/
   exhaust stores. 3

Question 36

Long-distance runners may prepare for their activity by glycogen-loading. What are its advantages and disadvantages to long-distance runners? (4 marks)

Answer 36

1. Store more glycogen than normal/equiv;
2. Aerobic energy source;
3. Lack of glycogen to last race/delays hitting the wall/delaying fatigue;
4. Manipulate diet;
5. Reduce intake then over compensate;
   sub max 3 per section
   Disadvantages
6. Affects metabolism/digestion; (do not credit indigestion/stomach problem)
7. Water retention/heavy legs;
8. Alterations to training programme/tapering/reduce training intensity

Question 37

Long-distance runners may experience difficulties with their temperature regulation during performance. Why may an increase in body temperature cause a problem and how is it regulated during performance? (4 marks)

Answer 37

Problems
1. Exercise/muscle contraction generates heat;
2. High core temperature;
3. Increased blood viscosity/blood gets thicker;
4. Metabolic processes slowed down;
5. Cannot transfer metabolic heat generated by muscles quickly enough/unable
to sweat efficiently
6. Denaturisation of enzymes/enzymes don’t function/work properly;
7. Loss of electrolytes/dehydration;

Regulation

8. Thermoregulatory centre/medulla/hypothalamus;
9. Heat loss through sweating/evaporation;
10. Vasodilation/opening of skin capillaries/blood closer to skin;
11. Heat loss through radiation;
12. Head loss through conduction/convection;
13. Rehydration;
14. Training adaptations.

Question 38

b) Explain the role of the muscle spindle apparatus in

i) plyometrics

Answer 38

1. Initial eccentric/downward contraction;
2. Stimulates muscle spindle apparatus/detects stretch;
3. (Sensory) nerve impulses to CNS;
4. Role of gamma motor neurons;
5. Spindles are adapted muscle fibres;
6. Added to normal fibres/intrafusal fibre contraction;
7. (Concentric) contraction more powerful/greater force produced;
8. More overload/power/fitness gains.

Question 39

b) Explain the role of the muscle spindle apparatus in

ii) PNF stretching. (3 marks)

Answer 39

(ii) 1. Golgi Tendon organs activated/detect stretch;
2. Muscles relax;
3. Inhibits stretch reflex/overrides/stops muscle spindles;
4. Designed to prevent overstretching/protective;
5. Allowing greater range of movement to be used.

Question 40

Discuss the suggestion that altitude training always improves performance in endurance events and explain the factors that contribute to a performer’s VO2 max. (14 marks)

Answer 40

Explanation of altitude training

A. Over 2000m/8000 feet above sea level
B. Usually for at least 30 days/month/3 phases named –
acclimatisation, primary training, recovery
C. Partial pressure of oxygen is lower/less oxygen available
D. Body produces erythropoietin/EPO/hEPO
E. Alternative methods now available, eg hypoxic tents/altitude
tents/oxygen tents/apartments/train low, live high

Improves Performance
F. Increased number/concentration/red blood cells
G. Increased concentration of haemoglobin/myoglobin/increased
haematocrit
H. Increased capacity to carry oxygen
I. Increased tolerance to lactic acid/buffering/delayed OBLA
J. Benefits last for up to 6 to 8 weeks.
Hinders performance
K. Altitude sickness
L. Training at same intensity difficult/detraining may occur/loss of
fitness
M. Benefits lost within few days back at sea level/up to few days
N. Psychological problems linked to travel/time away from home

VO2 Max factors
O. VO2 max definition – maximum volume of oxygen that can be utilised per minute/unit of time
P. Relative VO2 max definition – takes into account body weight/ ml.kg-1.min-1
Q. Lifestyle – lack of exercise/smoking/poor diet/fitter/equiv
R. Training – continuous/aerobic/fartlek improves VO2 max/stamina/
endurance training
S. Age – VO2 max decreases with age
T. Physiology – number of slow twitch fibres/capillary density/number
of mitochondria/haemoglobin content/surface area of alveoli/red
blood cell count/efficiency of heart or equivalent
U. Physiology – any other example named in point T
V. Genetics – inherited factors of physiology limit possible
improvement
W. Gender - men generally have approx. 20% higher VO2 max than
women
X. Body composition – higher percentage of body fat decreases VO2
max/poor diet reduce VO2 max/overweight/obese

Question 41

Describe and explain the effects of the exercise and recovery periods on the levels of glycogen in the elite performer. (4 marks)

Answer 41

1. Glycogen levels decrease during training and restored during recovery
2. Above resting;
3. It takes 24 hours to recover;
4. Glycogen used for energy/ATP formation/production; 5. Aerobic/oxygen;
5. Mitochondria/Krebís cycle/pyruvate;
6. Supercompensation/overcompensation/adaptation;
   (points 4,5 and 6 are in the context of exercise/process)

Question 42

How might this elite performer prepare for a competition that will last longer than 2 hours? (3 marks)

Answer 42

1. Carboloading/glycogen loading/supercompensate/overcompensate/ glycoloading
2. Dietary restriction of carbohydrate;
3. Modified training programme/tapering;
4. Increase carbohydrate intake 24hrs prior to event
5. To store more glycogen than normal;
6. Carbohydrate intake during event;