Prenatal Exposure to Drugs & Theories Flashcards

Question

Cocaine Pharmacology 1

Answer 1

- 3 neurotransmitters are affected: - norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin - Inhibits reuptake of NE and D, accumulates at synapse, resulting in prolonged stimulation of receptors - NE stimulation (tachycardia, HTN, diaphoresis (excessive sweating) , tremors - Dopamine stimulation (increased alertness, euphoria, enhanced feeling of well-being, heightened energy

Answer 2

- Decreases reuptake of tryptophan affecting serotonin biosynthesis - Decreased serotonin, decreased need for sleep - ---(sleep-wake cycle is disregulated) - Low molecular weight, high lipid solubility, crosses placenta by simple diffusion - Cocaine and metabolites are slow to be eliminated which increases toxicity to fetus - Placental perfusion decreases- blood flow from mom to fetus decreases - Congenital malformation not increased

Answer 3

1. Antenatal (before birth) - Stillbirth - Abortion - Infection/STD - Placental infarcts - IUGR - Abnormal fetal breathing 2. Intrapartum (during childbirth) - Premature labor - PROM- premature rupture of membranes - Shortened labor - Meconium stained amniotic fluid

Answer 4

1. Neonatal - PT, LBW, SGA (similar gestational age) - Postnatal growth restriction - Cerebral Infarction - Seizures - Cortical Atrophy - IVH - Abnormal EEG and BAER - NEC - Intestinal Perforation - Low birth weight, very low birth weight, extremely low birth weight 2. Long Term - Expressive/Receptive Language - Delay/Disorder - Poor Recognition/memory/info processing - Decreased visual attention - Behavioral issues (ADHD)

Answer 5

1. Methyphenyethlamine – stimulant of norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin release 2. Metamphetamine (meth, speed, ice, crystal) - Higher CNS stimulation, less PNS and cardiovascular stimulation

Answer 6

- Euphoria - Aggressive Behavior - Arrhythmias - Anxiety - Seizures - Shock - Stroke - Abdominal Cramps - Insomnia - Death

Answer 7

1. Antenatal - fetal death - Retroplacental hemorrhage 2. Neonatal - Prematurity - Neonatal Death - Drug Intoxication - Tremors - Abnormal Sleep Cycle- no sleep for 3 days really affects the baby - Poor Feeding - Hypertonia - Sneezing - High-pitched cry - Loose stools - Fever - Yawning - Hyperreflexia

Answer 8

- Decreased IQ - Aggressive behavior - Peer-related problems - Poor academic performance

Answer 9

-Approximately 20% of women smoke during pregnancy - Nicotine is a primary psychoactive chemical with the following fetal effects: - baby is usually very small -Use of tobacco during pregnancy results in complications for the infant

Answer 10

1. Fetal - SAB- spontaneous abortion - Stillbirth - Placental decidual necrosis 2. Intrapartum - Abruption - Premature labor 3. Neonatal - IUGR - CHD- congestive heart disease - Deformities of extremities, polycystic kidneys***, gastroschisis (born with their intestines on the outside) , skull deformities - PPHN- persistent pulmonary hypertension

Answer 11

- Low test scores (cognitive, language, general academic achievement) - Behavior disorder - Adolescent onset of drug dependence - SIDS

Answer 12

- Direct toxic effect on cells - Hypoxia (secondary to impaired placental / fetal blood flow) - Cell migration in the brain is effected - Apoptosis is effected - Weaning off of morphine usually takes 3-4 weeks - Neurobehavioral assessment may be done by an SLP or OT - Follow up is very important - NAS is not FAS

Answer 13

- Symptoms range from mild to severe - Abnormal facial features - Smooth philtrum - Small head size - Shorter than average height - Low body weight - Poor coordination

Answer 14

- Hyperactive behavior - Problems with the heart, kidneys, and bones - Difficulty paying attention - Poor memory - Difficulty in school (math especially) - Learning disabilities

Answer 15

- Speech and language delays - Intellectual disability or low IQ - Poor reasoning and judgment - Sleep problems as baby - Sucking problems as baby - Vision and hearing issues

Answer 16

Hypothesis to abstract concept (not definite end)

Answer 17

Experiment to concrete outcome

Answer 18

- Based on Neurodevelopment Framework Theory of Language - Components ----Higher Order Cognition ----Attention ----Memory ----Social Cognition ----Neuromotor Position ----Language ----Temporal sequential ordering ***Praxis info

Answer 19

- Ex. If a student is struggling with attention in class, the problem would be assessed via a neurodevelopment profile (through observation) - Behavior and work - Patterns and themes - Strengths, weaknesses, and affinities - Specify where learning is breaking down, but you are not labeling the child

Answer 20

- The neurodevelopmental framework which is the foundation for the Descriptive-Developmental Model aligns itself with the Specific Disabilities Model (individuals with a LD differ in their ability) - Use child's strengths to work on weaknesses

Answer 21

- Dr. Mel Levine founded the Neurodevelopmental Framework Theory -Graduated from Brown University, Rhodes Scholar at Oxford, Graduated From Harvard Medical School, Completed Pediatric Training at Children’s Hospital in Boston, Chief of Division of Ambulatory Pediatrics (14 years), Became associate professor at Harvard Medical School -Served as a Professor of Pediatrics at UNC School of Medicine - Co-founder of Success in Mind - Every child is unique (not just lumped into a diagnosis or condition) - Avoid lumping into categories - Avoid potentially stigmatizing labels

Answer 22

- Neurodevelopment Framework Theory led to the Descriptive-Developmental Model - Descriptive-Developmental Model founded by Dr. Lois Bloom and Dr. Margaret Lahey

Answer 23

- BA from Penn State - Masters from University of Maryland - Doctorate from Columbia (Psychology & Education) - Began her professional career as SLP - Founder of Descriptive-Development Model

Answer 24

- BS from State University of New York at Geneseo - Masters from Ohio State University - Doctorate from Columbia (Education) - Began her professional career as SLP - Founder of Descriptive-Development Model

Answer 25

- Descriptive – Perform analysis and provide a detailed description of the child’s language - Developmental – Determine child’s level of functioning, where that fits in the normal developmental sequence, provides information for what should come next - Treating each individual area of language is key

Answer 26

- Recognition of the fact that it is not always possible to know the cause of a language disorder - Most important information is a full profile of a child’s skills in each relevant area of language - The intervention program is developed based on the child’s skills in the context of normally developing speech and language - Considers the settings in which the client lives, the contexts in which the child functions, his/her chronological age and level of communicative function - Model makes no assumptions but focuses on that language disorders that require intervention.

Answer 27

- Highly relevant in instructional context - Treats language goals directly which results in improvement in language and communication - Follows normal language development sequence and serves as curriculum (goal based) - Focuses on individual (by chronological age and as a person vs as a disorder)

Answer 28

- Doesn’t work well with requirements set forth by schools due to avoidance of labels - Theories that focus on treatment of language from the perspective of linguistic disability do not focus (overly consider) age or environment - If you have a client who is 14 and functioning at a 2 year old level is it practical to focus therapy on the functioning level forward? - No ****** (at this point you need to help them communicate and not worry about basics)

Answer 29

- Purpose: Describe in detail the child’s current level of language function in terms of form, content, and use - Content-Choosing the right words to get the message across, involves vocabulary, concepts, and words with meaning. (semantics) - Form-Grammar, syntax, word endings, and verb tenses. Ability to create a sentence.( syntax, morphology, and phonology) - Use – Making use of language in ways to greet, question, argue, describe, request, etc. (pragmatics)

Answer 30

- Treatment is guided and carried out by following the normal language sequence - Stimuli, materials, and props are determine by the clients chronological age even though language treatment corresponds to the sequence of normal language development - ***need to use age appropriate tools

Answer 31

-“Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people and then inside the child.”

Answer 32

1. Cognitive approach to language acquisition or the developmental cognitive theory (Piaget’s) 2. Information processing approach or the information processing model 3. Social interactionist approach or social interaction model

Answer 33

- Social Interactionists argue that: - Language development is both biological and social. -Language learning is influenced by the desire of children to communicate with others. Social Interactionist perspective: -Learning language occurs through meaningful communicative interactions. -In the context of social interaction, particularly between child and caregivers.

Answer 34

- Laid foundation for SI theory - Born in 1896 in Russia t o middle class Jewish family - Strict laws on what jobs Jews could hold, what region of the country they could live in, and limits on education - Unconventional education - Private tutor for many years, and enrolled in a Jewish school only at the junior high school level - Admitted to Moscow University by “Jewish lottery.” - Transferred from the Medical School to the Law school. - The humanities courses at Moscow University could not satisfy his desire for knowledge. Therefore, he enrolled in a history and philosophy program at a private university

Answer 35

- Lev Vygotsky is considered a prominent figure in psychology, and much of his work is still being discovered and explored today. - While he was a contemporary of Skinner, Pavlov, Freud, and Piaget his work never attained their level of eminence during his lifetime. Part of this was because his work was often criticized by the Communist Party in Russia, and so his writings were largely inaccessible to the Western world. -His premature death at age 38 also contributed to his obscurity.

Answer 36

- Child development and how it was guided by the role of culture and interpersonal communication. - He observed how higher mental functions developed through these interactions, which also represented the shared knowledge of a culture

Answer 37

- The S.I. theory suggests that social interaction leads to continuous step-by-step changes in children's thought and behavior that can vary greatly from culture to culture - Development depends on interaction with people and the tools that the culture provides to help form their own view of the world. - His theory combines the social environment and cognition. - Children will acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a culture by interacting with a more knowledgeable person.

Answer 38

- Vygotsky’s theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. - It asserts 3 major themes……

Answer 39

1. Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. - Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development

Answer 40

2. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. -The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older adult, but the MKO could also be peers, a younger person, or even computers.

Answer 41

3. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability to solve the problem independently. -According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone.

Answer 42

- There are three ways a cultural tool can be passed from one individual to another: 1. Imitative learning - One person tries to imitate or copy another. 2. By instructed learning - Involves remembering the instructions of the teacher and then using these instructions to self-regulate. 3. Collaborative learning - Involves a group of peers who strive to understand each other and work together to learn a specific skill

Answer 43

- The Social Interaction theory is concerned with the use of language - The main purpose of language for children is social. They use the language to obtain the help of others and to solve problems. - Used by children for problem solving, overcoming impulsive action, to plan a solution before trying it out and to control their own behavior - Language serves as a tool used both to reflect on and direct behavior - Role in learning and development by acquiring a language - A child is provided the means to think in new ways and gains a new cognitive tool for making sense of the world.

Answer 44

- Krashen’s second language acquisition theory - Although Vygotsky and Krashen come from entirely different backgrounds, the application of their theories to second language teaching produces similarities. - Krashen's input hypothesis resembles Vygotsky's concept of zone of proximal development. - Input hypothesis- language acquisition takes place during human interaction in an environment of the foreign language when the learner receives language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence.

Answer 45

- In 1976 Wood, Bruner and Ross invent the term ‘scaffolding’ to describe tutorial interaction between an adult and a child. Spiral curriculum - The metaphor was used to explore the nature of aid provided by an adult for children learning how to carry out a task they could not perform alone. Bruner’s ideas of spiral curriculum and scaffolding are related. - A parallel has been drawn between the notion of scaffolding and ZPD theories of Vygotsky.

Answer 46

- Ernest Moerk - Wrote 4 books on the analyses of early parent-child language interactions - Detailing of the process by which parents serve as effective teachers using prompting, reinforcement, and corrections

Answer 47

- “Our ability to understand other people’s minds…” - “ToM refers to an understanding of mental states – such as belief, desire, and knowledge – that enables us to explain and predict others’ behavior.” - Critical lack of TOM w/ ASD

Answer 48

- “Theory of Mind refers to the folk psychological theory that we use to predict and explain others’ behavior on the basis of their internal workings: their feelings, intentions, desires, attitudes, beliefs, knowledge and point of view.”

Answer 49

- Example: “A person is seen doing something clearly foolish such as using mouthwash to wash his hair.” - To explain the aberrant behavior, we say “Oh, he thinks that bottle is the shampoo!” - “The false belief that the bottle is the shampoo is the content of the mental state, and by invoking it we keep the world around us normal, in which people do not randomly wash their hair with mouthwash.”

Answer 50

-“Understanding false beliefs is the culmination of a long developmental path that begins in early infancy and typically ends in at least the start of this understanding at around four or five years of age.”

Answer 51

- Philosophy - Psychology - Linguistics

Answer 52

- Socialization - Siblings - Cultural influences

Answer 53

- “…theory of mind develops over time, building from foundational, precursor skills to a sophisticated understanding of how mental states and behavior interact.”

Answer 54

- Joint attention- important for learning - Appreciation of intentionality - Recognition that different people have different perspectives - Use of mental state words - Pretend play

Answer 55

- Recognition of emotion: identifies a photo of a named emotion - Identification of an external cause of emotion: identifies a photo that expresses the emotion that would likely result from a given scenario. - Diverse desires: identifies that two people may have different desires about the same objects - Knowledge access: correctly interprets appearance-reality situations

Answer 56

- Explicit false belief: identifies how a person will act based on a mistaken belief - Belief emotion: identifies how a person will feel based on a mistaken belief - Regulation of emotion: identifies coping strategies and appropriate responses to emotions - Hiding emotions: identifies situations in which it may be appropriate to hide one’s true emotions

Answer 57

1. Identify facial expressions- age 4 2. Pass false-belief tasks- age 5 3. Hide and regulate emotions- age 6-7 4. Predict behaviors in response to emotions- age 8 5. Recognize multiple emotions may exist at once- age 9-10

Answer 58

- Primary contributor to social and pragmatic language deficits - Right frontal lobe appears to be primary center for ToM functions - Impacts ability to interact and to develop play skills

Answer 59

- Lack of ToM impacts individuals with… - Autism Spectrum Disorder - Primary contributor to social and pragmatic language deficits - Traumatic Brain Injury - Adolescents with TBI perform more poorly on higher order ToM tasks

Answer 60

- Relationship Development Intervention (RDI): improve social skills, adaptability, self-awareness - Social Intentional Method (SIM): social stories and scripts – based on Vygotsky’s theory - Social Cognition Training: perspective taking can be enhanced by suppressing imitation - Mental Verb Input: children who overheard discussions about someone’s mental states improved their understanding of false belief

Answer 61

-"it may be very well that the psychological laws arrived at by means of our restricted method can be extended into epistemological laws arrived at by the analysis of the history of the sciences: the elimination of realism, of substantialism, of dynamism, the growth of relativism, etc., all are evolutionary laws which appear to be common both to the development of the child and to that of scientific thought" - Jean Piaget

Answer 62

- Genetic Epistemology - He did not call what he was doing psychology - The core insight holds that we cannot understand what knowledge is unless we understand how it is acquired and that also we cannot understand how it is acquired unless we carry out psychological and historical investigations - Operative Knowledge - Believed that knowledge is primarily operative - Knowledge is primarily about change and transformation - Cognitive Structures - Thought that our knowledge consists of cognitive structures - Comes in various forms

Answer 63

- His researches in developmental psychology and genetic epistemology had one unique goal: how does knowledge grow? - His answer: growth of knowledge is a progressive construction of logically embedded structures superseding one another by a process of inclusion of lower less powerful logical means into higher and more powerful ones up to adulthood. - Therefore, children's logic and modes of thinking are initially entirely different from those of adults.

Answer 64

- Piaget was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development - His contributions include a theory of cognitive child development, detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities. - Piaget's approach is central to the school of cognitive theory known as "cognitive constructivism” - Other scholars, known as "social constructivists", such as Vygotsky and Bruner, have laid more emphasis on the part played by language and other people in enabling children to learn

Answer 65

- Piaget's oeuvre is known all over the world and is still an inspiration in fields like psychology, sociology, education, epistemology, economics and law as witnessed in the annual catalogues of the Jean Piaget Archives - He was awarded numerous prizes and honorary degrees all over the world.

Answer 66

- Developed by Jean Piaget in 1920 - Observed and described children at different ages - He assumed children: - Construct their own knowledge in response to their experiences - Learn many things on their own without the intervention of older children or adults - Are intrinsically motivated to learn and do not need rewards from adults to motivate learning

Answer 67

- He was the first to investigate child perception and logic systematically - He demonstrated that the difference between child and adult thinking was qualitative rather than quantitative (development is not smooth) - Claim that children pass through particular stages of cognitive development - He proposed that children's thinking does not develop entirely smoothly: instead, there are certain points at which it "takes off" and moves into completely new areas and capabilities. He saw these transitions as taking place at about 18 months, 7 years and 11 or 12 years.

Answer 68

1. Schemas 2. Processes 3. Stages of development

Answer 69

- aka building blocks of knowledge (units of knowledge) - Schemas are “units” of knowledge, each relating to one aspect of the world, including objects, actions and abstract (i.e. theoretical) concepts - A schema can be defined as a set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use both to understand and to respond to situations - The assumption is that we store these mental representations and apply them when needed

Answer 70

-Allow transition to next stage: | Equilibrium, Assimilation and Accommodation

Answer 71

- Sensorimotor - Preoperational - Concrete operational - Formal operational

Answer 72

- Piaget believed that newborn babies have some schemas - even before they have had much opportunity to experience the world. These neonatal schemas are the cognitive structures underlying innate reflexes - These reflexes are genetically programmed into us - Example: Babies have a sucking reflex, which is triggered by something touching the baby's lips. - A baby will suck a nipple, a comforter (dummy), or a person's finger. - Piaget therefore assumed that the baby has a 'sucking schema'. - Similarly the grasping reflex which is elicited when something touches the palm of a baby's hand, or the rooting reflex, in which a baby will turn its head towards something which touches its cheek, were assumed to result from primitive schemas.

Answer 73

- This is the force which drives the learning process - We do not like to be frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge (eventual accommodation) - Once the new information is acquired the process of assimilation with the new schema will continue until the next time we need to make an adjustment to it

Answer 74

- This is using an existing schema to a new situation - Example: Two-year-old child sees a man who is bald on top of his head and has long frizzy hair on the sides. To his father’s horror, the toddler shouts “Clown, clown”

Answer 75

- This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) needs to be changed to take in new information - Example: boy’s father explained to his son that the man was not a clown and that even though his hair was like a clown’s, he wasn’t wearing a funny costume and wasn’t doing silly things to make people laugh. With this new knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of “clown” and make this idea fit better to a standard concept of “clown”

Answer 76

1. 0-2y reflex base, coordinate reflexes 2. 2-6y or 7y self-oriented, egocentric 3. 6 or 7- 11 or 12y more than 1 view point, no abstract problems, consider some outcomes 4. 11 or 12y and up think abstractly, reason theoretically, not all people reach this stage

Answer 77

- 0-2 years - Knowledge develops through sensory and motor abilities - Characteristics - --Infant differentiates itself from objects ---Understands cause/effect- becomes aware of own actions on the environment ----Object permanence -Active play with child is most effective at this stage. Encourage explorations in touching, smelling, and manipulating objects. Peekaboo is a good way to establish permanence of objects

Answer 78

- 2-7 years - Knowledge is represented by language, mental imagery, and symbolic thought - Characteristics: ---Child represents objects by words ---Symbolic representations - the use of one object to stand for another ---Egocentric- world revolves around the child ---Centration: Focusing on one dimension of objects or events and on static states rather than transformations ---Classifies objects by single salient features Ex. Four-legged animals - Specific examples and touching or seeing things continues to be more useful than verbal explanations. Learning the concept of conservation may be aided by demonstrations with liquids, beads, clay, and other substances

Answer 79

- 7-12 years - Children can reason logically about concrete objects and events Characteristics: ---Conservation concept - changing the appearance or arrangement of objects does not change their key properties --Highly abstract thinking and reasoning about hypothetical situations still remains very difficult ---Logical thought occurs ---Conservation concepts and orders these in a series along a dimension ---Understands relations terms Ex: length - Children begin to use generalizations, but they still require specific examples to grasp many ideas. Expect a degree of inconsistency in the child's ability to apply concepts of time, space, quantity, and volume to new situations

Answer 80

- 12 years + - Children can think deeply about concrete events and can reason abstractly and hypothetically - Characteristics: ---Ability to think abstractly and reason hypothetically ---Follows logical propositions ---Isolates elements of problem and systematically explores solutions ---Becomes concerned with hypothetical future ideological problems ---Ability to reason systematically about all different outcomes. ---Ability to engage in scientific thinking - It is now more effective to explain things verbally or symbolically and to help children master general rules and principles. Encourage the child to create hypotheses and to imaging how things could be.

Answer 81

- “A study of child development in terms of systematic and representative imitation, the structure and symbolism of games and dreams, and the movement from sensory-motor schemas to conceptual schemas.” - Examines a more profound explanation of play - Provides criteria for play - Interpreting play - Infantile dynamics - Schemas in play

Answer 82

- Piaget argued that language acquisition was dependent upon thought and understanding. - A word or phrase could only appear in the child’s vocabulary after he had understood its meaning. -Hence, younger children can only understand solid concepts like "ma", "ball", and "dog". Only when the child begins to grasp abstract concepts will these words enter his vocabulary.

Answer 83

- Sensorimotor play - 2-12 months - Nonfunctional play - 9-12 months - Functional play - 10 - 18 months

Answer 84

- Consists of physical manipulation and inspection of objects by grasping, holding, mouthing, biting, banging, etc. - Infant’s attempt to assimilate the object into his existing cognitive structure and also attempting to adapt the world to make accommodations for the toy/object.

Answer 85

- Beginning to relate objects to another (in a non-functional way) - Child may stack, bump, nest, touch, etc. objects together

Answer 86

- Beginning to use objects in manner consistent with object’s conventional use - Typical, conventional, social, functional use of objects

Answer 87

- Watson & Zlotlow (1999) “an important characteristic of young children’s early symbolic play is the existence of functional-conventional behaviors, demonstrated in the enactment of activities that are very familiar to the child in contexts that are not typical for those activities”

Answer 88

- According to Piaget, some evidence of symbolic play begins at about 18 months of age. - Child begins to use one object to represent another. - “Letting one entity represent another, shows that the child does not need the structure and support of contextual cues to enact their play behaviors.” - Symbolic play is multi-dimensional and involves the components of... - The use of objects - Actions used during the play - The role(s) of the individuals enacting the play (agents in play)

Answer 89

-Involves how various objects are used as well as object substitution, enacting a play scenario without objects, and combining objects in play.

Answer 90

- Begins with substituting one object for another - Initially object and substitute have shared attributes aka similar object substitution - At a later age, substituting an unrelated object (such as a block for car) occurs aka dissimilar object substitution - Finally, enacting a play scene by pretending to use an object (even without a concrete object present) aka no object substitution or imaginary object use

Answer 91

- Integration of realistic objects with each other. - Incorporating object- and no-object substitutions. - As young as 24 mos old (per Patterson and Westby) children used a combo of appropriate realistic objects in play and even searching behaviors for specific objects to enact play scenarios

Answer 92

“The symbolic play of children can be described by the number of actions that are performed within a play episode and how those actions relate with each other.”

Answer 93

- Initially, at about 16 to 18 months, children primarily enact in single play behaviors, such as pretending to drink - These behaviors are not causally or temporally connected to other play behaviors. - Play is highly contextually supported through the use of realistic objects. - Next, single scheme combinations is shown – children begin to display a single play scheme with a variety of receivers. - The child may pretend to feed several dolls in succession. - Typical for ages 18-24 months

Answer 94

- After 24 months, children begin to use multischeme combinations while playing. - These behaviors replicate activities of typical daily routines. - Child may use a spoon to stir “food” in a cup and then a feed a doll.

Answer 95

- Last, is episode combinations - when children are about 3 years old. - These are longer play scenarios that consist of a variety of related actions and activities. - For example: child may play “Birthday Party” by first setting up for the part, baking a fake cake, followed by enacting an actual play party.

Answer 96

- This area of play involves the child that is responsible for carrying out the actions of play. - Casby (1991a) asserted that observation of children’s use of agents in play provides insight into their perspective-taking ability. - This is because taking on the role of others may be observed. - There are 5 aspects of agents in play…

Answer 97

- Initially, children perform their own actions while playing. - This substage is termed as self-as-agent and includes behaviors such as holding a cup and pretending to drink. - Children between ages 12 to 18 months.

Answer 98

- Then between 15 and 21 months, children often engage in passive-other-as-agent play. - This is characterized by having a doll or other type of toy receive the child’s action. - The child may give a doll a drink from a cup.

Answer 99

- The next level, is termed active-other-as-agent and occurs between 19 and 26 months. - The child may manipulate a doll or figure to perform an action. - That is, the child may move the doll’s arm as if to feed him or herself.

Answer 100

- The last two developmental levels of agent use in symbolic play are role-playing and enacting dual roles. - Child is around 3 years old - Role-playing - Enacting dual roles