Prenatal Flashcards
Child Development
Scientific study of processes of change and stability in children from conception through adolescence
Physical Development
Growth of body and brain, including biological and physiological patterns of change in sensory capacities, motor skills, and health
Cognitive Development
Pattern of change in mental abilities, such as learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity
Psychosocial Development
Pattern of change in emotions, personality, and social relationships
Social Construction
concept about the nature of reality based on societally shared perceptions or assumptions
Individual differences
differences among children in characteristics, influences, or developmental outcomes
Heredity
Inborn characteristics inherited from the biological parents
Enviroment
totality of nonhereditary, or experimental, influences on development
Maturation
unfolding of a universal natural sequence of physical and behavioral changes
Nuclear Family
Two-generational household unit consisting of one or two parents and their biological children, adopted children, or step children.
Extended family
Multigenerational kinship network of parents, children, and other relatives, sometimes living together in an extended-family household
Culture
a society’s or group’s total way of life, including customs, traditions, beliefs, values, language, or national origin that contributes to a sense of shared identity
Ethnic Group
A group united by ancestry, race, religion, language, or national origin that contributes to a sense of shared identity
Ethnic Gloss
Overgeneralization about an ethic or cultural group that blurs or obscures variations within the group or overlaps with other such groups
Socioeconomic Status
combination of economic and social factors, including income, education, and occupation, that describe an individual or family
Risks Factors
Conditions that increase the likelihood of a negative developmental outcome
Normative
Characteristics of an event that occurs in a similar way for most people in a group
Historical Generation
a group of people strongly influenced by a major historical event during their formative period
Cohort
a group of people born at about the same time
Nonnormative
characteristic of an unusual event that happens to a particular person or a typical event that happens at an unusual time of life
Imprinting
Instinctive form of learning in which, during a critical period in early development, a young animal forms an attachment to the first moving object it sees, usually the mother
Critical Period
specific time when a given event or its absence has a profound and specific impact on development
Plasticity
Modifiability of the brain through experience
Sensitive Periods
times in development when a given event or its absence usually has a strong effect on development
Theory
coherent set of logically related concepts that seeks to organize, explain, and predict data
Hypotheses
Possible explanations for phenomena, used to predict the outcome of research
Mechanistic Model
model that views human development as a series of predictable responses to stimuli
Organismic Model
model that views human development as internally initiated by an active organism, and as occurring in a sequence of qualitatively different stages
Quantitative Change
change in number or amount, such as in height, weight, or size of vocabulary
Qualitative Change
change in kind, structure, or organization, such as the change from nonverbal to verbal communication
Psychoanalytic Perspective
View of human development as being shaped by unconscious forces
Psychosexual Development
In Freudian theory, an unvarying sequence of stages of personality development during infancy, childhood, and adolescence, in which gratification shifts from the mouth to the anus and then to the genitals
Learning Perspective
view of human development that holds that changes in behavior result from experience
Behaviorism
learning theory that emphasizes the predictable role of environment in causing observable behavior
Classical Conditioning
learning based on association of a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a particular response with another stimulus that does not elicit the response
Operant Conditioning
Learning based on association of behavior with its consequences
Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, a process that increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated
Punishment
In operant conditioning, a process that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated
Social Learning Theory
Theory that behaviors also are learned by observing and imitating models (social cognitive theory)
Reciprocal Determinism
Bandura’s term for bidirectional forces that affect development
Observational Learning
Learning through watching the behavior of others
Self-Efficacy
sense of one’s capability to master challenges and achieve goals
Cognitive Perspective
Perspective that looks at the development of mental processes such as thinking
Cognitive-Stage Theory
Piaget’s theory that children’s cognitive development advances in a series of four stages involving qualitatively distinct types of mental operations
Organization
Piaget’s term for the creation of categories or systems of knowledge
Schemes
Piaget’s term for organized patterns of thought and behavior used in particular situations
Adaptation
Piaget’s term for adjustment to new information about the environment
Assimilation
Piaget’s term for incorporation of new information into an existing cognitive structure
Accommodation
Piaget’s term for changes in a cognitive structure to include new information
Equilibration
Piaget’s term for the tendency to seek a stable balance among cognitive elements; achieved through a balance between assimilation and accommodation
Sociocultural Theory
Vygotsky’s theory of how contextual factors affect children’s development
Zone of Proximal Development
Vygotsky’s term for the difference between what a child can do alone and what a child can do with help
Scaffolding
temporary support to help a child master a task
Information-Processing Approach
Approach to the study of cognitive development by observing and analyzing the mental processes involved in perceiving and handling information
Contextual Perspective
View of child development that sees the individual as inseparable from the social context
Bioecological Theory
Bronfenbrenner’s approach to understanding processes and contexts of child development that identifies five levels of environmental influence
Microsystem
Bronfenbrenner’s term of setting in which child interacts with others on an everyday, face-to-face basis
Mesosystem
Bronfenbrenner’s term for linkages between two or more microsystems
Exosystem
Bronfenbrenner’s term for linkages between two or more settings, one of which does not contain the child
Macrosystem
Bronfenbrenner’s term for a society’s overall cultural patterns including customs, values, and social systems
Chronosystem
Bronfenbrenner’s term for effects of time and other developmental systems
Evolutionary/Sociobiological Perspective
View of human development that focuses on evolutionary and biological bases of social behavior
Ethology
Study of distinctive adaptive behaviors of species of animals that have evolved to increase survival of the species
Evolutionary Psychology
Application of Darwinian principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest to human psychology
Quantitative Research
research that deals with objectively measurable data
Scientific Method
System of established principles and processes of scientific inquiry, which includes identifying a problem to be studied, formulating a hypothesis to be tested by research, collecting data, analyzing the data, forming tentative conclusions, and disseminating findings
Qualitative Research
Research that involves the interpretation of nonnumerical data, such as subjective experiences, feelings, or beliefs
Sample
group of participants chosen to represent the entire population under study
Random Selection
selection of a sample in such a way that each person in a population has an equal and independent chance of being chosen
Naturalistic Observation
research method in which behavior is studied in natural settings without intervention or manipulation
Laboratory Observation
research method in which all participants are observed under the same controlled conditions
Operational Definition
definition stated solely in terms of the operations or procedures used to produce or measure a phenomenon
Cognitive Neuroscience
study of links between neural processes and cognitive abilities
Case Study
study of a single subject, such as an individual or family
Ethnographic Study
In-depth study of a culture, which uses a combination of methods including participant observation
Participant Observation
research method in which the observer lives with the people or participates in the activity being observed
Correlational Study
Research design intended to discover whether a statistical relationship between variables exists
Experiment
rigorously controlled, replicable, procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of one on the other
Experimental Group
In an experiment, the group receiving the treatment under the study
Control Group
In an experiment, a group of people, similar to those in the experimental group, who do not receive the treatment under the study
Independent Variable
In an experiment, the condition over which the experiment has direct control
Dependent Variable
In an experiment, the condition that may or may not change as a result of changes in the independent variable
Random Assignment
Assignment of participants in an experiment to groups in such a way that each person has an equal chance of being placed in any group
Cross-Sectional Study
study deigned to assess age-related differences, in which people of different ages are assessed on one occasion
Longitudinal Study
study designed to assess changes in a sample over time
Sequential Study
study design that combines cross-sectional and longitudinal techniques
Fertilization
Union of sperm and ovum to produce a zygote (conception)
Zygote
one-celled organism resulting from fertilization
Infertility
inability to conceive after 12 months of trying
Assisted Reproductive Technology
methods used to achieve conception through artificial means
Genetic Code
Sequence of bases within the DNA molecule; a set of rules that govern the formation of proteins that determine the structure and function of living cells
Chromosomes
Coils of DNA that consist of genes
Genes
Small segments of DNA located in definite positions on particular chromosomes; functional units of heredity
Human Genome
the complete sequence of genes in the human body
Autosomes
In humans, the first 22 pairs of chromosomes not related to sexual expression
Sex Chromosomes
Pair of chromosomes that determines sex: XX in the normal human female, XY in the normal human male
Alleles
two or more alternative forms of a gene that can occupy the same position on paired chromosomes and affect the same trait
Homozygous
processing of two identical alleles for a trait
Heterozygous
processing of differing alleles for a trait
Dominant Inheritance
pattern of inheritance in which, when a child receives different alleles, only the dominant one is expressed
Recessive Inheritance
Pattern of inheritance in which a child receives identical recessive alleles, resulting in expression of a nondominant trait
Polygenic Inheritance
Pattern of inheritance in which multiple genes at different sites on chromosomes affect a complex trait
Mutations
Permanent alterations in genes or chromosomes that usually produce harmful characteristics but provide the raw material of evolution
Phenotype
observable characteristics of a person
Genotype
Genetic makeup of a person, containing both expressed and unexpressed characteristics
Multifactorial Transmission
combination of genetic and environmental factors to produce certain complex traits
Epigenesis
Mechanism that turns genes on or off and determines functions of body cells
Sex-Linked Inheritance
pattern of inheritance in which certain characteristics carried on the X chromosome inherited from the mother are transmitted differently to her male and female offspring
Incomplete Dominance
pattern of inheritance in which a child receives two different alleles resulting in partial expression of a trait
Down Syndrome
chromosomal disorder characterized by moderate-to-severe mental retardation and by such physical signs as a downward-sloping skin fold at the inner corners of the eyes
Genetic Counseling
Clinical service that advises prospective parents of their probable risk of having children with hereditary defects
Behavioral Genetics
Quantitative study of relative hereditary and environmental influences on behavior
Heritability
statistical estimate of contribution of heredity to individual differences in a specific trait within a given population at a particular time
Concordant
Term describing the tendency of twins to share the same trait or disorder
DNA
chemical that carries inherited instructions for the development of all cellular forms of life
Reaction Range
potential variability, depending on environmental conditions, in the expression of a hereditary trait
Canaliztion
limitation on variance of expression of certain inherited characteristics
Genotype-Environmental Interaction
effect of the interaction between genes and the environment on phenotypic variation
Genotype-Environmental Correlation
Tendency of certain genetic and environmental influences to reinforce each other; may be passive, reactive, or active
Nonshared Environmental Effects
the unique environment in which each child grows up, consisting of distinctive influences or influences that affect one child differently from another
Obesity
extreme overweight in relation to age, sex, height, and body type
Temperament
Characteristic disposition, or style of approaching and reacting to situations
Schizophrenia
neurological disorder marked by loss of contact with reality; hallucinations and delusions; loss of coherent, logical thought; and inappropriate emotionality
Gestation
period of development between conception and birth
Gestational Age
age of an unborn baby, usually dated from the first day of an expectant mother’s last menstrual cycle
Cephalocaudal Principle
principle that development proceeds in a head-to-tail direction; that is, that upper parts of the body develop before lower parts of the body
Proximodistal Principle
principle that development proceeds from within to without that is, that parts of the body near the center develop before the extremities
Germinal Stage
first 2 weeks of prenatal development, characterized by rapid cell division, increasing complexity and differentiation, and implantation in the wall of the uterus
Implantation
the attachment of the blastocyst to the uterine wall, occurring at about day 6
Embryonic Stage
second stage of prenatal development (2 to 8 weeks), characterized by rapid growth and development of major body systems and organs
Spontaneous Abortion
Natural expulsion from the uterus of a embryo that cannot survive outside the womb
Fetal Stage
final stage of prenatal development (from 8 weeks to birth), characterized by increased by differentiation of body parts and greatly enlarged body size
Ultrsound
prenatal medical procedure using high frequency sound waves to detect the outline of a fetus and its movements, used to determine whether a pregnancy is progressing normally
Teratogen
Environmental agent, such as a virus, a drug, or radiation, that can interfere with normal prenatal development and cause developmental abnormalities
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
combination of mental, motor, and developmental abnormalities affecting the offspring of some women who drink heavily during pregnancy
AIDS
viral disease that undermines effective functioning of the immune system
Parturition
the act or process of giving birth
Electronic Fetal Monitoring
Mechanical monitoring of fetal heartbeat during labor and delivery
Cesarean Delivery
delivery of a baby by surgical removal from the uterus
Natural,or Prepared, Childbirth
method of childbirth that seeks to reduce or eliminate the use of drugs , enable both parents to participate fully, and control perceptions of pain
Doula
an experienced mentor who furnishes emotional support and information for a woman during labor
Neonatal Period
First 4 weeks of life, a time of transition from intrauterine dependency to independent existence
Neonate
Newborn baby, up to 4 weeks old
Anoxia
Lack of oxygen which may cause brain damage
Neonatal Jaundice
condition in many newborn babies caused by immaturity of the liver and evidenced by a yellowish appearance; can cause brain damage if not treated promptly
Apgar Scale
standard measurement of a newborn’s condition; it assesses appearance, pulse, grimace, activity, and respiration
Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale
neurological and behavioral test to measure a neonate’s responses to the environment
State of Arousal
Infant’s physiological and behavioral status at a given moment in the periodic daily cycle of wakefulness, sleep, and activity
Low-Birth-Weight Babies
Infants who weigh less than 5 and a half pounds at birth because of prematurity or being small-for-date
Preterm (Premature) Infants
Infants born before completing the 37th week of gestation
Small-For-Date (Small-For-Gestational-Age) Infants
Infants whose birth weight is less than that of 90 percent of babies of the same gestational age as a result of slow fetal growth
Kangaroo Care
method of skin-to-skin contact in which a newborn is laid face down between the mother’s breasts
Postmature
A fetus not yet born as of 42 weeks gestation
Stillbirth
death of a fetus at or after the 20th week of gestation
Protective Factors
Factors that reduce the impact of potentially negative influences and tend to predict positive outcomes
Mother-Infant Bond
Mother’s feeling of close, caring connection with her newborn
