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Psychology 221 (Child Development) > Prenatal > Flashcards

Prenatal Flashcards

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1
Q

Child Development

A

Scientific study of processes of change and stability in children from conception through adolescence

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2
Q

Physical Development

A

Growth of body and brain, including biological and physiological patterns of change in sensory capacities, motor skills, and health

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3
Q

Cognitive Development

A

Pattern of change in mental abilities, such as learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity

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4
Q

Psychosocial Development

A

Pattern of change in emotions, personality, and social relationships

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5
Q

Social Construction

A

concept about the nature of reality based on societally shared perceptions or assumptions

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6
Q

Individual differences

A

differences among children in characteristics, influences, or developmental outcomes

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7
Q

Heredity

A

Inborn characteristics inherited from the biological parents

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8
Q

Enviroment

A

totality of nonhereditary, or experimental, influences on development

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9
Q

Maturation

A

unfolding of a universal natural sequence of physical and behavioral changes

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10
Q

Nuclear Family

A

Two-generational household unit consisting of one or two parents and their biological children, adopted children, or step children.

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11
Q

Extended family

A

Multigenerational kinship network of parents, children, and other relatives, sometimes living together in an extended-family household

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12
Q

Culture

A

a society’s or group’s total way of life, including customs, traditions, beliefs, values, language, or national origin that contributes to a sense of shared identity

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13
Q

Ethnic Group

A

A group united by ancestry, race, religion, language, or national origin that contributes to a sense of shared identity

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14
Q

Ethnic Gloss

A

Overgeneralization about an ethic or cultural group that blurs or obscures variations within the group or overlaps with other such groups

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15
Q

Socioeconomic Status

A

combination of economic and social factors, including income, education, and occupation, that describe an individual or family

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16
Q

Risks Factors

A

Conditions that increase the likelihood of a negative developmental outcome

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17
Q

Normative

A

Characteristics of an event that occurs in a similar way for most people in a group

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18
Q

Historical Generation

A

a group of people strongly influenced by a major historical event during their formative period

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19
Q

Cohort

A

a group of people born at about the same time

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20
Q

Nonnormative

A

characteristic of an unusual event that happens to a particular person or a typical event that happens at an unusual time of life

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21
Q

Imprinting

A

Instinctive form of learning in which, during a critical period in early development, a young animal forms an attachment to the first moving object it sees, usually the mother

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22
Q

Critical Period

A

specific time when a given event or its absence has a profound and specific impact on development

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23
Q

Plasticity

A

Modifiability of the brain through experience

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24
Q

Sensitive Periods

A

times in development when a given event or its absence usually has a strong effect on development

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25
Q

Theory

A

coherent set of logically related concepts that seeks to organize, explain, and predict data

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26
Q

Hypotheses

A

Possible explanations for phenomena, used to predict the outcome of research

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27
Q

Mechanistic Model

A

model that views human development as a series of predictable responses to stimuli

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28
Q

Organismic Model

A

model that views human development as internally initiated by an active organism, and as occurring in a sequence of qualitatively different stages

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29
Q

Quantitative Change

A

change in number or amount, such as in height, weight, or size of vocabulary

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30
Q

Qualitative Change

A

change in kind, structure, or organization, such as the change from nonverbal to verbal communication

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31
Q

Psychoanalytic Perspective

A

View of human development as being shaped by unconscious forces

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32
Q

Psychosexual Development

A

In Freudian theory, an unvarying sequence of stages of personality development during infancy, childhood, and adolescence, in which gratification shifts from the mouth to the anus and then to the genitals

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33
Q

Learning Perspective

A

view of human development that holds that changes in behavior result from experience

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34
Q

Behaviorism

A

learning theory that emphasizes the predictable role of environment in causing observable behavior

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35
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

learning based on association of a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a particular response with another stimulus that does not elicit the response

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36
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

Learning based on association of behavior with its consequences

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37
Q

Reinforcement

A

In operant conditioning, a process that increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated

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38
Q

Punishment

A

In operant conditioning, a process that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated

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39
Q

Social Learning Theory

A

Theory that behaviors also are learned by observing and imitating models (social cognitive theory)

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40
Q

Reciprocal Determinism

A

Bandura’s term for bidirectional forces that affect development

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41
Q

Observational Learning

A

Learning through watching the behavior of others

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42
Q

Self-Efficacy

A

sense of one’s capability to master challenges and achieve goals

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43
Q

Cognitive Perspective

A

Perspective that looks at the development of mental processes such as thinking

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44
Q

Cognitive-Stage Theory

A

Piaget’s theory that children’s cognitive development advances in a series of four stages involving qualitatively distinct types of mental operations

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45
Q

Organization

A

Piaget’s term for the creation of categories or systems of knowledge

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46
Q

Schemes

A

Piaget’s term for organized patterns of thought and behavior used in particular situations

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47
Q

Adaptation

A

Piaget’s term for adjustment to new information about the environment

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48
Q

Assimilation

A

Piaget’s term for incorporation of new information into an existing cognitive structure

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49
Q

Accommodation

A

Piaget’s term for changes in a cognitive structure to include new information

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50
Q

Equilibration

A

Piaget’s term for the tendency to seek a stable balance among cognitive elements; achieved through a balance between assimilation and accommodation

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51
Q

Sociocultural Theory

A

Vygotsky’s theory of how contextual factors affect children’s development

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52
Q

Zone of Proximal Development

A

Vygotsky’s term for the difference between what a child can do alone and what a child can do with help

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53
Q

Scaffolding

A

temporary support to help a child master a task

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54
Q

Information-Processing Approach

A

Approach to the study of cognitive development by observing and analyzing the mental processes involved in perceiving and handling information

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55
Q

Contextual Perspective

A

View of child development that sees the individual as inseparable from the social context

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56
Q

Bioecological Theory

A

Bronfenbrenner’s approach to understanding processes and contexts of child development that identifies five levels of environmental influence

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57
Q

Microsystem

A

Bronfenbrenner’s term of setting in which child interacts with others on an everyday, face-to-face basis

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58
Q

Mesosystem

A

Bronfenbrenner’s term for linkages between two or more microsystems

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59
Q

Exosystem

A

Bronfenbrenner’s term for linkages between two or more settings, one of which does not contain the child

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60
Q

Macrosystem

A

Bronfenbrenner’s term for a society’s overall cultural patterns including customs, values, and social systems

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61
Q

Chronosystem

A

Bronfenbrenner’s term for effects of time and other developmental systems

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62
Q

Evolutionary/Sociobiological Perspective

A

View of human development that focuses on evolutionary and biological bases of social behavior

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63
Q

Ethology

A

Study of distinctive adaptive behaviors of species of animals that have evolved to increase survival of the species

64
Q

Evolutionary Psychology

A

Application of Darwinian principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest to human psychology

65
Q

Quantitative Research

A

research that deals with objectively measurable data

66
Q

Scientific Method

A

System of established principles and processes of scientific inquiry, which includes identifying a problem to be studied, formulating a hypothesis to be tested by research, collecting data, analyzing the data, forming tentative conclusions, and disseminating findings

67
Q

Qualitative Research

A

Research that involves the interpretation of nonnumerical data, such as subjective experiences, feelings, or beliefs

68
Q

Sample

A

group of participants chosen to represent the entire population under study

69
Q

Random Selection

A

selection of a sample in such a way that each person in a population has an equal and independent chance of being chosen

70
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A

research method in which behavior is studied in natural settings without intervention or manipulation

71
Q

Laboratory Observation

A

research method in which all participants are observed under the same controlled conditions

72
Q

Operational Definition

A

definition stated solely in terms of the operations or procedures used to produce or measure a phenomenon

73
Q

Cognitive Neuroscience

A

study of links between neural processes and cognitive abilities

74
Q

Case Study

A

study of a single subject, such as an individual or family

75
Q

Ethnographic Study

A

In-depth study of a culture, which uses a combination of methods including participant observation

76
Q

Participant Observation

A

research method in which the observer lives with the people or participates in the activity being observed

77
Q

Correlational Study

A

Research design intended to discover whether a statistical relationship between variables exists

78
Q

Experiment

A

rigorously controlled, replicable, procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of one on the other

79
Q

Experimental Group

A

In an experiment, the group receiving the treatment under the study

80
Q

Control Group

A

In an experiment, a group of people, similar to those in the experimental group, who do not receive the treatment under the study

81
Q

Independent Variable

A

In an experiment, the condition over which the experiment has direct control

82
Q

Dependent Variable

A

In an experiment, the condition that may or may not change as a result of changes in the independent variable

83
Q

Random Assignment

A

Assignment of participants in an experiment to groups in such a way that each person has an equal chance of being placed in any group

84
Q

Cross-Sectional Study

A

study deigned to assess age-related differences, in which people of different ages are assessed on one occasion

85
Q

Longitudinal Study

A

study designed to assess changes in a sample over time

86
Q

Sequential Study

A

study design that combines cross-sectional and longitudinal techniques

87
Q

Fertilization

A

Union of sperm and ovum to produce a zygote (conception)

88
Q

Zygote

A

one-celled organism resulting from fertilization

89
Q

Infertility

A

inability to conceive after 12 months of trying

90
Q

Assisted Reproductive Technology

A

methods used to achieve conception through artificial means

91
Q

Genetic Code

A

Sequence of bases within the DNA molecule; a set of rules that govern the formation of proteins that determine the structure and function of living cells

92
Q

Chromosomes

A

Coils of DNA that consist of genes

93
Q

Genes

A

Small segments of DNA located in definite positions on particular chromosomes; functional units of heredity

94
Q

Human Genome

A

the complete sequence of genes in the human body

95
Q

Autosomes

A

In humans, the first 22 pairs of chromosomes not related to sexual expression

96
Q

Sex Chromosomes

A

Pair of chromosomes that determines sex: XX in the normal human female, XY in the normal human male

97
Q

Alleles

A

two or more alternative forms of a gene that can occupy the same position on paired chromosomes and affect the same trait

98
Q

Homozygous

A

processing of two identical alleles for a trait

99
Q

Heterozygous

A

processing of differing alleles for a trait

100
Q

Dominant Inheritance

A

pattern of inheritance in which, when a child receives different alleles, only the dominant one is expressed

101
Q

Recessive Inheritance

A

Pattern of inheritance in which a child receives identical recessive alleles, resulting in expression of a nondominant trait

102
Q

Polygenic Inheritance

A

Pattern of inheritance in which multiple genes at different sites on chromosomes affect a complex trait

103
Q

Mutations

A

Permanent alterations in genes or chromosomes that usually produce harmful characteristics but provide the raw material of evolution

104
Q

Phenotype

A

observable characteristics of a person

105
Q

Genotype

A

Genetic makeup of a person, containing both expressed and unexpressed characteristics

106
Q

Multifactorial Transmission

A

combination of genetic and environmental factors to produce certain complex traits

107
Q

Epigenesis

A

Mechanism that turns genes on or off and determines functions of body cells

108
Q

Sex-Linked Inheritance

A

pattern of inheritance in which certain characteristics carried on the X chromosome inherited from the mother are transmitted differently to her male and female offspring

109
Q

Incomplete Dominance

A

pattern of inheritance in which a child receives two different alleles resulting in partial expression of a trait

110
Q

Down Syndrome

A

chromosomal disorder characterized by moderate-to-severe mental retardation and by such physical signs as a downward-sloping skin fold at the inner corners of the eyes

111
Q

Genetic Counseling

A

Clinical service that advises prospective parents of their probable risk of having children with hereditary defects

112
Q

Behavioral Genetics

A

Quantitative study of relative hereditary and environmental influences on behavior

113
Q

Heritability

A

statistical estimate of contribution of heredity to individual differences in a specific trait within a given population at a particular time

114
Q

Concordant

A

Term describing the tendency of twins to share the same trait or disorder

115
Q

DNA

A

chemical that carries inherited instructions for the development of all cellular forms of life

116
Q

Reaction Range

A

potential variability, depending on environmental conditions, in the expression of a hereditary trait

117
Q

Canaliztion

A

limitation on variance of expression of certain inherited characteristics

118
Q

Genotype-Environmental Interaction

A

effect of the interaction between genes and the environment on phenotypic variation

119
Q

Genotype-Environmental Correlation

A

Tendency of certain genetic and environmental influences to reinforce each other; may be passive, reactive, or active

120
Q

Nonshared Environmental Effects

A

the unique environment in which each child grows up, consisting of distinctive influences or influences that affect one child differently from another

121
Q

Obesity

A

extreme overweight in relation to age, sex, height, and body type

122
Q

Temperament

A

Characteristic disposition, or style of approaching and reacting to situations

123
Q

Schizophrenia

A

neurological disorder marked by loss of contact with reality; hallucinations and delusions; loss of coherent, logical thought; and inappropriate emotionality

124
Q

Gestation

A

period of development between conception and birth

125
Q

Gestational Age

A

age of an unborn baby, usually dated from the first day of an expectant mother’s last menstrual cycle

126
Q

Cephalocaudal Principle

A

principle that development proceeds in a head-to-tail direction; that is, that upper parts of the body develop before lower parts of the body

127
Q

Proximodistal Principle

A

principle that development proceeds from within to without that is, that parts of the body near the center develop before the extremities

128
Q

Germinal Stage

A

first 2 weeks of prenatal development, characterized by rapid cell division, increasing complexity and differentiation, and implantation in the wall of the uterus

129
Q

Implantation

A

the attachment of the blastocyst to the uterine wall, occurring at about day 6

130
Q

Embryonic Stage

A

second stage of prenatal development (2 to 8 weeks), characterized by rapid growth and development of major body systems and organs

131
Q

Spontaneous Abortion

A

Natural expulsion from the uterus of a embryo that cannot survive outside the womb

132
Q

Fetal Stage

A

final stage of prenatal development (from 8 weeks to birth), characterized by increased by differentiation of body parts and greatly enlarged body size

133
Q

Ultrsound

A

prenatal medical procedure using high frequency sound waves to detect the outline of a fetus and its movements, used to determine whether a pregnancy is progressing normally

134
Q

Teratogen

A

Environmental agent, such as a virus, a drug, or radiation, that can interfere with normal prenatal development and cause developmental abnormalities

135
Q

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

A

combination of mental, motor, and developmental abnormalities affecting the offspring of some women who drink heavily during pregnancy

136
Q

AIDS

A

viral disease that undermines effective functioning of the immune system

137
Q

Parturition

A

the act or process of giving birth

138
Q

Electronic Fetal Monitoring

A

Mechanical monitoring of fetal heartbeat during labor and delivery

139
Q

Cesarean Delivery

A

delivery of a baby by surgical removal from the uterus

140
Q

Natural,or Prepared, Childbirth

A

method of childbirth that seeks to reduce or eliminate the use of drugs , enable both parents to participate fully, and control perceptions of pain

141
Q

Doula

A

an experienced mentor who furnishes emotional support and information for a woman during labor

142
Q

Neonatal Period

A

First 4 weeks of life, a time of transition from intrauterine dependency to independent existence

143
Q

Neonate

A

Newborn baby, up to 4 weeks old

144
Q

Anoxia

A

Lack of oxygen which may cause brain damage

145
Q

Neonatal Jaundice

A

condition in many newborn babies caused by immaturity of the liver and evidenced by a yellowish appearance; can cause brain damage if not treated promptly

146
Q

Apgar Scale

A

standard measurement of a newborn’s condition; it assesses appearance, pulse, grimace, activity, and respiration

147
Q

Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale

A

neurological and behavioral test to measure a neonate’s responses to the environment

148
Q

State of Arousal

A

Infant’s physiological and behavioral status at a given moment in the periodic daily cycle of wakefulness, sleep, and activity

149
Q

Low-Birth-Weight Babies

A

Infants who weigh less than 5 and a half pounds at birth because of prematurity or being small-for-date

150
Q

Preterm (Premature) Infants

A

Infants born before completing the 37th week of gestation

151
Q

Small-For-Date (Small-For-Gestational-Age) Infants

A

Infants whose birth weight is less than that of 90 percent of babies of the same gestational age as a result of slow fetal growth

152
Q

Kangaroo Care

A

method of skin-to-skin contact in which a newborn is laid face down between the mother’s breasts

153
Q

Postmature

A

A fetus not yet born as of 42 weeks gestation

154
Q

Stillbirth

A

death of a fetus at or after the 20th week of gestation

155
Q

Protective Factors

A

Factors that reduce the impact of potentially negative influences and tend to predict positive outcomes

156
Q

Mother-Infant Bond

A

Mother’s feeling of close, caring connection with her newborn

Psychology 221 (Child Development) (4 decks)

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