Power & Authority in the Modern World Flashcards
When was the Paris Peace Conference and what were its goals?
January 1919
To prevent another major world war and determine the consequences of the previous one
Who controlled the Paris Peace Conference? Who was excluded from it?
The Big Four (Britain, France, America, Italy) controlled the conference
Russia was excluded for signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, while the Central Powers were not invited until the terms of the treaty had been finalised
What were the goals of the ‘Big Four’?
France advocated for a harsh peace, including reparations, German loss of territory and disarmament
Britain wished to disband the German navy but were otherwise willing to side with Wilson’s softer approach
Italy desired many territories but received few
US President Woodrow Wilson hoped to use his Fourteen-Point Plan to achieve ‘peace without victory’ and establish a League of Nations to prevent future conflicts
What five treaties were signed at the Paris Peace Conference, and what were their impacts?
The Treaty of Versailles (Germany)
The Treaty of Trianon (Hungary) - loses two-thirds of its territory and inhabitants
The Treaty of Neuilly (Bulgaria) - loses territory but treated relatively leniently
The Treaty of Saint-Germain (Austria) - dissolves the Austro-Hungarian Empire and forbids Austria from unifying with Germany
The Treaty of Sevres (Ottoman Empire) - leads to the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the creation of new nation-states in the Middle East
What were the implications of the Treaty of Versailles for Germany?
Germany lost its overseas colonies and was forced to give up European territory
Its military was reduced to only 100,000 men with no aircraft
It was forced to pay over US$33 billion in reparations
Under Article 231, Germany had to accept all responsibility for causing the war
The terms created resentment among the German people, who viewed it as a ‘diktat’
AJP Taylor Quote on the Treaty of Versailles
“The Treaty of Versailles left the ‘German problem’ unsolved; indeed, made it inevitably more acute”
When was the League of Nations established, and what were its aims?
The League of Nations was established under the Treaty of Versailles, and came into force on 28 April 1919
According to the Covenant of the League of Nations, its key objective was to “promote international co-operation and achieve international peace and security by accepting obligations not to resort to war”
What limited the effectiveness of the League?
The absence of the US severely weakened its power & influence
The League had no military force, and had to rely on the goodwill of nations
Which were the four countries left dissatisfied with the results of the Paris Peace Conference?
Germany - viewed it as a diktat and blamed the Weimar Republic, Kapp Putsch, Rathenau killed
Italy - felt cheated of territorial gains
Japan - felt cheated of territorial gains, angered that the League of Nations rejected their ‘racial equality’ proposal
Russia - excluded from the conference entirely
Stephen Lee Quote on the Consequences of the Paris Peace Conference
“Far from experiencing underlying stability before 1914, Europe seethed with unresolved problems and tensions… considerably strengthened in the peace that followed”
What impact did the Great War and subsequent Great Depression have on Europe and the world?
Manufacturing took a downturn following the end of the war, and in 1920 global manufacturing was 7% below pre-war levels (in Germany, it was down 30%)
This foreshadowed ‘The Great Depression’ - a period in which the value of European trade fell by half from $58 billion to $20.6 billion between 1928-35
Mark Mazower Quote on the Questioning the Followed the Financial Crises
“We should certainly not assume that democracy is suited to Europe…. there were dynamic non-democratic alternatives to meet the challenges of modernity”
How did Stalin rise to power and then consolidate his dictatorship?
He used his position as General Secretary of the Communist Party to build support during the power struggle, offering party members a better quality of life as a reward - a system of patronage
Stalin used films, art and the press to create a ‘cult of personality around himself - his 1938 book ‘History of the All-Union Communist Party’ rewrote the revolution
Stalin purged ‘Old Bolsheviks’ so that his version of history could not be challenged - of the 139 members of the 1934 Central Committee, all but 41 were removed by 1940
What was the impact of Stalin’s economic reforms?
From 1929, Stalin implemented collectivisation, where previously privately owned farms were placed under the control of communes or the state
In less than a decade, over 93% of land was under the program
Stalin blamed the failures on the kulaks (a class of wealthy peasant landowners), whom he placed in gulags with other dissidents
Robert Service Quote on Stalin Impact
“He dominated the central public life of the USSR. Political, economic, social and cultural activity was conditioned by his inclinations”
Briefly outline how Mussolini came to power in Italy
Voting reforms in 1912 & 1919 resulted in universal male suffrage and created fears among the conservative sections of the Italian community, as well as resulting in divided parliaments
Italian economy was fragile post-WW1 - 2 million were unemployed in 1919, inflation soared
Mussolini founded the Fascist Party in 1919, advocating nationalism and anti-communist/democratic value
It had 100,000 members by Feb. 1921
In October 1922, Mussolini led the ‘March on Rome’ and was asked to form government by the King
Kershaw Quote on Mussolini’s Rise to Power
“Mussolini’s radicalism was not only compatible with the interests of the conservative ruling class, it actively served them… he did not seize power, he was invited to take it”
What were the key features of Italian fascism with regard to domestic and foreign policy?
Domestic Policy = strong penal code, secret police, opposition lost citizenship
Foreign Policy = build a second Roman Empire and make the Mediterranean Italian Lake
Mussolini Quote on the Nature of Fascism
“For Fascism the state is absolute, individuals and groups relative”
Outline the conditions in Japan that facilitated Tojo’s rise to power
The Great Depression hit Japan very hard, and a growing domestic population placed stress on its limited natural resources and food supply
Japan believed that the structure of the League favoured Western nations, who wanted to control the world’s resources by placing barriers on Japanese trade & immigration
Japan became Imperialist, acquiring territory and exploiting the food supplies of China and Korea - the army, not parliament, became the power behind the throne
Events such as the Manchurian crisis of 1931 saw Japan become isolated from the League of Nations, and they became the first nation to withdraw in 1933
Although Tojo held many government positions, what limited his power?
Japan’s military oligarchy limited Tojo’s authority - Tojo was not an autocrat unlike others
He owed his power to his loyalty and willingness to serve both army and emperor
What is the full name of the Nazi Party?
The National Socialist German Workers’ Party
When Hitler became leader of the Party in 1920, he presented a 25 Point Programme outlining the Nazi vision for Germany’s future - list three key areas
The abolition of the Treaty of Versailles (claiming Germany were stabbed in the back)
The unification of all Germans in a greater Germany
A ban on jews from being members of the German racial community
Why did Hitler believe 1923 was the right time to stage a coup?
By 1923, at the height of hyperinflation, the party membership had risen to 55,000
German government was very unstable - The Spartacist Uprising (1919), Kapp Putsch (1920) and the Ruhr (industrial heartland) had been occupied by France to extract reparations
What occurred during the Munich Putsch, and what were its immediate consequences?
Inspired by Mussolini, Hitler undertook the ‘Munich Putsch’ - a 9 November march through Munich in an attempt to seize power in Bavaria, then the rest of Germany
The march failed - police killed 14 Nazis, and Hitler was charged with high treason
Hitler used his trial to stoke nationalistic sentiment and during his nine months in prison published ‘Mein Kampf’ (My Struggle) in which he outlined his vision for Germany
Bullock Quote on the Impact of the Great Depression on Germany
“there was incalculable human anxiety and embitterment burnt into the minds of millions of ordinary German working men and women”
What was Article 48 & why was it significant for the collapse of the Weimar Republic?
Embedded within the Constitution of the Weimar Republic was Article 48, which allowed the President to take emergency measures without consulting the Reichstag
President Hindenburg grew frustrated with democracy and began to invoke Article 48 regularly - 60 times in 1932 - weakening an already fragile democratic system
AJP Taylor Quote on Article 48
“The reliance on Article 48 marked the end of democracy in Germany”
How did Hitler come to power?
Between 1929-1933, successive German chancellors and a divided Reichstag had failed to solve the economic and political problems facing Germany
Presenting himself as a strong authoritarian leader, Hitler was appealing - the electoral performances of the Nazis suggest that they were a party of protest, who thrived on periods of chaos and social disillusionment
Politicians such as Franz von Papen and the conservative elites convinced President Hindenburg to appoint Hitler Chancellor on January 30, 1933, believing that they could control Hitler by having few Nazi members in the cabinet
What does Gleichschaltung mean?
Gleichschaltung - the process by which the Nazi Party established control over Germany
What was the significance of the Reichstag Fire to the Nazi consolidation of power?
On 27 February 1933, the Reichstag building was set on fire, and a Dutch Communist, Marinus van der Lubbe, was charged with the crime
The following day, President Hindenburg signed the Decree for the Protection of People and State (The Reichstag Fire Decree) which gave Hitler sweeping personal powers to restrict civil liberties in the face of the supposed Communist threat
Richard Evans Quote on the Significance of the Reichstag Fire Decree
“Germany was well on the way to becoming a dictatorship before the Reichstag Fire Decree… but it undoubtedly sped it up and provided it with the appearance of legal & political legitimation”
List three events that assisted the Nazis in consolidating their power
22 March - first concentration camp for political opponents was set up at Dachau
24 March - the Enabling Act was passed by 444-94 (only Social Democrats opposed), which served to give Hitler the power to enact laws without involving the Reichstag
July 14 - a decree made the Nazi Party the only legal political party in Germany
Why did Hitler feel that purging the SA was necessary?
By 1934, there were over two million SA, and their leader, Ernst Roehm, had a power base from which he could, in theory, pose a threat to Hitler’s leadership
Roehm was a more radical element within the Nazi movement, and called for the SA to become the core of the German Army - a prospect that appalled German generals
In April 1934, Hitler met with German army commanders and made a deal - the army would support Hitler’s rise to the presidency in return for the suppression of the SA
What occurred during the Night of the Long Knives?
On 30 June 1934, Hitler used Heinrich Himmler’s SS to murder Roehm, SA leaders and other political opponents - over 85 were killed
“In this hour I was responsible for the fate of the German people, and thereby I became the supreme judge of the German people” - Hitler
The SA never again played a prominent role, with precedent being given to the SS
When did Hitler achieve absolute power in Germany?
Upon Hindenburg’s death in August 1934, Hitler combined the leadership positions of President and Chancellor to be known as Fuhrer of the Reich
Hitler Quote on German Nationalism
“The highest form of Nationalism finds its expression only in an unconditional devotion of the individual to the people”
Outline the relationship between Volksgemeinschaft and the Lebenesbraum
The Nazi’s argued that they aimed to create a new harmonious national racial community (Volksgemeinschaft) based on what they saw as the traditional values of the German people
Hitler argued that this community needed Lebensraum (living space) by expanding Eastward
What was the Fuhrerprinzip?
The Führerprinzip (Führer Principle) placed all authority in the hands of the leader and established that Hitler’s will was supreme
Nazi views on race + Hitler quote
Nazi ideology was also defined by race thinking - the idea that Germany and the Volksgemeinshaft were constantly under threat from evil, racially inferior groups such as the Jews amd Eastern slavic people
“All great cultures of the past perished only because the originally creative race died out from blood poisoning - Hitler
What was the role of Martin Bormann in the Nazi state? (include historian quote)
head of the Nazi Party Chancellery (head office) and Hitler’s private secretary
controlled Nazi Party appointments and the flow of information to the Fuhrer
“Bormann was the éminence grise (power behind the throne) of the Third Reich.” - Heinz Guderian, German General
What was the role of Hermann Goering in the Nazi state?
commander of the German Air Force & President of the Reichstag
in charge of the mobilisation of the German economy & police state
many historians judge him to be the second most powerful Nazi leader
created Gestapo in 1933, established concentration camps for political opponents
Goering Quote on Controlling the Population
“The people can always be brought to the bidding of the leaders… tell them they are being attacked and denounce the peacemakers for lack of patriotism” - 1946
What was the role of Joseph Goebbels in the Nazi state?
Minister of Propaganda and Enlightenment
was given total jurisdiction over the content of German newspapers, books, films, magazines and music
his gift as a speaker and writer assisted him in making important contributions to the election of the Nazi Party and its consolidation of power
Goebbels quote on the press
“Think of the press as a great keyboard on which the government can play”
What was the role of Heinrich Himmler in the Nazi state?
commander of the SS, Gestapo and unified police forces, had ultimate responsibility for internal security
strong racial purity beliefs, he was in charge of Germany’s concentration camps and was responsible for implementing the ‘Final Solution’
Himmler Quote on controlling the population
“The best political weapon is the weapon of fear. Cruelty demands respect”
How did the Nazis utilise propaganda and censorship?
all entertainment and culture had to be approved by the Reich Chamber of Culture
the people’s radio (Voksempfanger) reached 70% of German households by 1939, highest percentage of radio access in the world - propaganda could reach all homes
news media was kept firmly under government control and information from outside Germany was strictly restricted
Hitler Quote on Propaganda
“Propaganda’s effect must be aimed at the emotions and only to a very limited degree the so-called intellect”
Bullock Quote on Hitler Myth
“After the Nazi takeover Hitler was presented as the embodiment of Volksgemeinschaft… a man of the people whose appeal cut across class and religious boundaries, affecting young and old, men & women”
Kershaw Quote on Hitler Myth
“Without the adulation of Hitler by millions of Germans, the drive, dynamism and momentum of Nazi rule could hardly have been sustained”
How did the Nazis utilise terror and repression?
the SS, Gestapo and concentration camps served to repress outward dissent, and they had the power to arrest individuals and imprison them indefinitely
the Gestapo relied heavily on informants, but the illusion of being all-knowing was enough to terrorise the population
the SS had 200,000 members by 1935, and were chiefly responsible for Holocaust
Concentration camps “the most effective instrument” to maintain power - Hitler
young people who refused to join the Hitler youth would not receive a school-leaving certificate and thus find it difficult to gain a job
How did the Nazis utilise laws to consolidate their power?
Between 1933-35, the Nazi Party created a series of laws that legidslated increasing levels of anti-Semitic discrimination, eroding the civil liberties of Jews
In April 1933, the Nazi Party introduced the ‘Aryan Paragraph’ which blocked Jews from becoming members of economic establishments, political parties, social clubs and other institutions
The Nuremberg Laws of September 1935 banned all inter-religious relationships and stripped Jews of their German citizenship
In 12 years of Nazi rule, the Reichstag only passed four laws - the above were two
What was the impact of the Nazis on art & culture in Germany?
realism was favoured in both paintings and sculptures, as abstraction was regarded as decadence - paintings focussed on the beauty of the body and family/rural life
the regime favoured classical music, and Wagner was given special status
architecture had to be along classical lines
What was the impact of the Nazis on religion?
Hitler claimed that the Christian denomination was “the most important factor for upholding our nationhood”
in July 1933, Hitler established a ‘Reich Church’ under Ludwig Mueller to bring together Protestant and Catholic factions
that same month, Hitler signed a Concordat with the Vatican, promising to guarantee freedoms for the Catholic Church so long as it did not interfere in the state
What was the impact of the Nazis on German workers?
Hitler saw economic growth & low unemployment would earn workers’ support
abolition of trade unions in 1933, German Labour Front took control of the workers
through the ‘strength through joy’ movement workers were given holidays and treated to concerts and sporting events
the ‘beauty of work’ campaign sought to improve working conditions in the absence of pay rise, giving the illusion that the Nazis were achieving social revolution
What was the impact of the Nazis on German women?
Nazi women’s policy can be summarised in the slogan ‘Kinder, Küche und Kirche’ (Children, Kitchen and Church)
“The new woman idealised in a hundred propaganda posters, a contented and competent helpmate for her man, but above all, a model of heroic fecundity” - Overy
organisations such as National Socialist Womanhood (NSF) followed the line that women should stay confined to the home
between 1933-36, married women were banned from jobs as doctors, lawyers and civil servants and employers were asked to favour men
Lebensborn (Fountain of Life) - a program approved by Himmler to provide for women who were racially pure to have children outside of marriage
What was the impact of the Nazis on German youth?
the Hitler Youth Movement was established in 1926 and a girls’ wing - the League of German Maidens - was set up in 1930
after the Hitler Youth Law of December 1936, membership became compulsory
many young people found the outside sports and comradeship attractive
in schools, teachers who did not support Nazism were removed, and new textbooks taught students love for Hitler, obedience to the state, militarism & anti-semitism
“When an opponent says ‘I will not come over to your side’ I calmly say your child belongs to us already” - Hitler
What was the impact of the Nazis on minorities?
Policy followed villification, discrimination, separation and then extermination
As early as April 1933, the Nazis orchestrated a national boycott of Jewish enterprise
between 1933-39, the Nazis introduced more than 400 pieces of anti-Jewish legislation designed to deprive the Jews of their civil rights
according to the Nuremberg laws of 1935, an individual with even one Jewish grandparent could be deprived of their German citizenship and status as an Aryan
other regulations meant that Jews were, unable to marry Aryans, unable to attend German schools/universities and forbidden to own land
November 1938 saw Kristallnacht -1000 Jews killed and 22,00 incarcerated
Name three groups that opposed the Nazi regime
The Political Left - Social Democrats, Communists & Unionists encouraged sabotage and absenteeism in factories
Minorities in the Church - included Dietrich Bonhoeffer & Martin Niemoller, as well as the ‘Confessing Church’ which was set up in 1934 to oppose the government’s efforts to unify all churches
Edelweiss Pirates - working-class young people who fought the Hitler Youth
Hans Litten - legal challenges to the Nazis, subpoened Hiter
What were the aims of the United Nations, set out in the Atlantic Charter?
Their aims were set out in the Atlantic Charter of 1941, which emphasised:
The right of peoples to self-determination
The removal of trade barriers to facilitate global economic cooperation
There was to be common disarmament agreements after the war
How did the ambitions of Germany change over time?
Hitler and the German nationalists sought to overturn the Treaty of Versailles and dominate Europe to obtain Lebensraum (living space) for the Germans of Eastern Europe
In 1937, Hitler moved Germany from its historic objective of dominating central Europe towards the pursuit of a pan-German state to unify all ethnic Germans in a racial empire
Hitler quote on eastward expansion
“We must direct our gaze towards the East. In seeking further enlargement of the living space of our people we can only find it in Russia and the states along her border”
What is a wehwintschaft?
Hitler created a Wehwintschaft or ‘defence based economy’ - by 1939, 23% of Germany’s GDP was allocated to military spending
How did Hitler infringe on the terms of the Treaty of Versailles?
In 1935, he reintroduced conscription
In 1936, German troops marched into the Rhineland
In 1938, Austria and Germany united
How did Hitler defend his infringement of the Treaty of Versailles?
Hitler’s army increase ensured Germany could match its neighbours
The Rhineland was in fact German territory
The majority of Austrians were in favour of Anschluss, exercising self-determination
Why was Japan disappointed with the outcome of the Paris Peace Conference?
They had been denied access to German Pacific colonies
Australia & the US were allowed to maintain racist immigration policies
The Japanese had a longstanding view of themselves as superior to others in the Asia-Pacific region, and resented their treatment at the hands of the West
What were Japan’s aims in the Pacific?
Japan had a growing population and limited resources, and thus saw colonialism as a means of providing raw materials and food for its people
Japan propagated the concept of a ‘Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere’ - a self-sufficient block of East-Asian Nations led by the Japanese and free from the rule of Western powers
Woodrow Wilson Quote on the Intentions of the League of Nations
“A general association of nations must be formed to afford mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike”
What are some similarities between the League of Nations and the United Nations?
Both were born out of opposition to war & the belief that the world could be made safer
Their authority is based on a set of rules and principles agreed upon by all members
Both organisations were dependent on the goodwill of their member states for power
Both embraced the concept of ‘collective security’ - the idea that individual nations will look first to the international body for support - this was where the League failed while the UN, to a certain extent, has managed to balance relationships of authority and power
What problems inhibited the League of Nations?
nationalism prevailed over internationalism
the League failed to reflect a balance of power among its members (no United States, Germany or Russia)
lack of enforceability - toothless tiger - an example being the Abyssinia Crisis of 1936, when the League
condemned Italy but could only muster weak sanctions
What were the intentions of the United Nations?
Maintain International Peace & Security
Protect Human Rights (UDHR CRITICAL FOR THIS)
Deliver Humanitarian Aid
Promote Sustainable Development
Uphold International Law
What are the five organs of the UN?
The General Assembly (for all nations to have a voice)
The Security Council (five members with veto power)
The Economic & Social Council
The International Court of Justice
The Trusteeship Council
Kennedy arguments for the importance of the UN
Created a place where all nations could meet
Created agencies to coordinate efforts to improve
international health and welfare
Established a framework for international human rights
Created an enduring idea of international civil society
Helped to lead important technological, economic & social changes
Kofi Annan Quote on the Importance of the UN
“I believe that the United Nations is the instrument for securing peace and for giving people everywhere a real stake in that peace by promoting development and encouraging cooperation”
