Civil Rights in the USA: 1945-68 Flashcards
Outline the key features of the Reconstruction Era (1865-77)
This period promised much but delivered little for black people
Sharecropping emerged as a form of economic entrapment in the South; by 1899 approximately half of all Southern blacks lived in a state of virtual servitude
The prison system also served as a means of free labour, as convicts were rented out to private enterprises in agriculture or industry
C Bowers Quote on the Reconstruction Era
“Never have American public men in responsible positions, directing the destiny of the nation, been so brutal, hypocritical, and corrupt. The constitution was treated as a doormat.”
Outline ‘Plessy v Ferguson’ and its consequences for black people
The 1896 Supreme Court decision in Plessy vs Ferguson ruled that the 14th Amendment to the constitution guaranteed legal but not social equality
This established the ‘separate but equal’ principle that allowed Southern states to establish a system of virtual apartheid - Jim Crow Laws
All areas of public life were segregated, and black people were disenfranchised through poll taxes and literacy tests
Edward Ball Quote on Plessy v Ferguson
“The encirclement is complete. Race quarantine becomes the custom in all the land. White supremacy is acclaimed in habit, in thought and in law.”
What is lynching and how was it used to intimidate black people?
Lynching - an extrajudicial killing undertaken by a mob, intended to punish an alleged offender and intimidate a group of people
Between 1888-1923, more than 2,500 southern blacks were lynched
What was the ‘Great Migration’ and why did it occur?
Although still enshrined with racism, the industrialised North offered more employment and access to legal & political systems
Between 1900-50, black people living outside the South went from 9% to 45% in ‘The Great Migration’
What was the impact of WW2 on the civil rights movement?
Despite the army being segregated, black soldiers made up 10% of recruits and some 1.2 million served
WW2 coincided with anti-colonial sentiment across the world, and many black people asked, as in the 1942 letter, ‘should I sacrifice my life to live half-American?’
The ‘Double V’ movement was launched, fighting for victory against the fascists overseas and victory against racism in America
NAACP Crisis Paper Quote, 1940
“The hysterical cries of the preachers for democracy in Europe leave us cold. We want democracy in Alabama, Arkansas, in Mississippi and Michigan, in the District of Columbia, in the Senate of the United States”
What advances in Civil Rights took place in the Truman era?
1946 saw the first civil rights commission and outlawing of interstate bus segregation
In 1948, the armed forces were desegregated
However, most of these federal laws were rejected by Southern states
Who were the NAACP and what role did they play in the Civil Rights Movement?
One of the earliest civil rights groups, the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People was founded in 1909 with the aim to “secure for all the rights guaranteed in the 13th, 14th and 15th amendments”
They ran a campaign against lynching that lasted the entire century
Thurgood Marshall of the NAACP Legal Defence & Education Fund argued the landmark case of Brown v Board of Education (1954) before the Supreme Court, which resulted in the principle of separate but equal being struck down
The primary organisers of the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom
Cornell William Brooks Quote on NAACP Impact
“The NAACP played a critical role in making America what it is today”
Who were CORE and what role did they play in the Civil Rights Movement?
An interracial group established in Chicago in 1942, the Congress of Racial Equality’s approach was non-violent direct action inspired by Mahatma Ghandi
Designed a series of successful Chicago sit-ins to protest university segregation, which would go on to inspire Southern efforts
Their volunteers were a vital to the Mississippi Freedom Summer and it was three CORE workers (Schwerer, Goodman & Chaney) who were murdered for their activity
James Farmer Jr Quote on the intentions of CORE
“Like a seed, a real core, it would germinate and radiate its equality in wider and wider circles until it encompassed the whole nation.”
Who were the SCLC and what role did they play in the Civil Rights Movement?
Formed in 1957 in response to the Montgomery bus boycott and deeply tied to religious duty & non-violence, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference served as a coordinating organisation
It trained thousands of activists in the philosophy of non-violence
Played important roles in March on Washington & Selma-Montgomery March
One of the mottos of the SCLC
“Not one hair of one head of one person should be harmed”
Who were the SNCC and what role did they play in the Civil Rights Movement?
The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee was a grassroots organisation established in 1960, in the midst of student lunch counter sit-ins and dedicated to nonviolent direct action
Under the leadership of John Lewis, it became the leading force for voter registration in the rural South, targeting the oft-neglected ‘Black Belt’
Working with CORE, it organised the Freedom Rides & Mississippi Freedom Summer
SNCC Press Release on Non-Violent Activity
“Through nonviolence, courage displaces fear; love transforms hate.”
Who were the Nation of Islam and what role did they play in the Civil Rights Movement?
Founded in Detroit, Michigan, 1930, the NOI was a religious organisation that combined black nationalism with an unorthodox interpretation of Islam
Its messages of Africanism, economic reliance and forceful self-defence differed from every other major civil rights organisation at the time
Under the influence of Malcolm X, the NOI had gained 300,000 members by 1964
It would have a major influence on future Black Power movements and the BPP
Elijah Muhamad Quote on the Philosophy of the NOI
“We must get away from the idea of depending on others to do for us what we can do for self. Fear, cowardice, and laziness are our greatest enemies”
What were the Black Panther Party and what role did they play in the Civil Rights Movement?
Founded in 1966 in Oakland, the BPP advocated black power and class struggle
It instituted Free Breakfast For Children Programs and operated community health clinics for education and the treatment of diseases
Its anti-police attitude led Hoover to call it “the greatest internal threat” to America
Fred Hampton Quote on the BPP mission
“I am the people, I’m not the pig. You got to make a distinction. And the people are going to have to stand up against the pigs”
How were legal challenges used to promote the civil rights movement?
The NAACP Legal and Defence Fund took on cases that challenged racist laws all across the country - 20 went before the Supreme Court between 1940-68
These cases challenged discriminatory laws in the public eye and often led to law reform (but sometimes opponents found ways to delay/avoid court orders)
Examples include Brown v Board of Education (1954) & Browder v Gayle (1955)
NAACP Press Release After Brown v Board Of Education
“All Americans are now relieved to have the law of the land declare in the clearest language ‘in the field of public education, the doctrine of separate but equal has no place”
How were boycotts used to promote the civil rights movement?
These were usually targeted at segregated institutions and could last last for long periods - the Montgomery Bus Boycott lasted 381 days
Their effectiveness came from their economic impact and the solidarity of the black community even in face of targeting by police and the Klan
The most famous example is the Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1955
Al Sharpton Quote on the Effectiveness of Boycotts
“With boycotts, they didn’t need everyone. Just enough to be effective”
How were sit-ins used to promote the civil rights movement?
These protests, where demonstrators occupied a location and refused to leave until their demands were met, were often utilised by students and could last for weeks
They were effective because they cost businesses customers and the peaceful nature of the protest made violent attempts to remove protestors stand out
One of the first occurred at Read’s Drug Store Maryland (1955) and famous ones took place in Greensboro (1960) - it lasted for six months!
Martin Luther King Quote on Sit-Ins
“electrifying movement of Negro students [that] shattered the placid surface of campuses and communities across the South”
How were marches used to promote the civil rights movement?
Occurred in a range of mediums across the country, from protests on foot or in cars and buses
They often drew massive media attention, drew together groups from across the civil rights movement and piled pressure on legislators to establish change
The March on Washington For Jobs and Freedom, where 250,000 attended (1963) & Selma/Montgomery March (1965) became famous worldwide
Fairclough Quote on the aims of the SCLC with marches
“The power of nonviolence lay in its ability to symbolise the violence of segregation. The SCLC sought vivid images that would attract the news media and evoke sympathy for the protestors”
Martin Luther King - Key Beliefs + Quote
Peaceful protest is the best means of achieving change; there is a difference between non-resistance and non-violent resistance
All men and women have been created equal under God, and deserve equal rights and respect under the law
Love can serve as a powerful emotional force
““Nonviolence is a powerful and just weapon, which cuts without wounding. It is a sword that heals.”
Martin Luther King - Aims + Quote
Raise the public consciousness of racism in society
Achieve equal rights and opportunities for black people
Harness the moral authority and organising power of black churches to conduct non-violent protest
Organise a coordinated approach to civil rights, uniting multiple factions
“Equality with whites will not solve the problems of either whites or negroes if it means equality in a world society stricken by poverty and in a universe doomed to extinction by war”
Martin Luther King - Methods + Baldwin Quote
Boycotts: the Montgomery Bus Boycott (which King led) lasted 381 days
Speeches: between 1957-68, King spoke over 2,500 times
Lobbying: King developed strong connections with Presidents Kennedy & Johnson, as well as Attorney General Robert F Kennedy
Peaceful Protest: the 1963 March on Washington drew over 250,000
Training: King taught thousands of activists the philosophy of non-violence
“King’s most significant and far-reaching influence came through his involvement with the peace movement and global antiwar activities” - Baldwin
Malcolm X - Beliefs + Quote
Black people should be proud of their African history and embrace Pan-Africanism; peoples of African descent have common interests and should be united
White society corrupts all within it; black people need to move away from it
“I charge the white man with being the greatest liar on earth. I charge the white man with being the greatest murderer on earth”
Self-defence is a legitimate response to violence against the black community
Freedom must be achieved “by any means necessary”
Malcolm X - Aims + Marble Quote
Develop political and economic self-reliance for black people
Develop a highly educated black population
Develop an independent defence force for black people
Develop connections between civil rights movement and global anti-colonial fight
Destroy black self-hate and establish black self-love
“To most black Americans, Malcolm X became an icon of black encouragement, who fearlessly challenged racism wherever he found it and inspired black youth to take pride in their history and culture” - M Marble
Malcolm X - Methods + Quote
Encouraged a strict moral code - no smoking, drugs, alcohol or extra-marital sex
Encouraged support and only purchasing from black-owned community stores
Assisted the Nation of Islam in setting up seperate schools for black youth
Established the Fruit of Islam to protect Black Muslims from the police
Visited a wide range of African & Arabic nations to promote black unification
“Be peaceful, be courteous, obey the law, respect everyone; but if someone puts his hand on you, send him to the cemetery.” - Malcolm X
Fairclough Quote on Malcolm X Influence
“Malcolm X’s influence in the black community is much greater today than during his lifetime - his message of black empowerment provided the philosophical platform for the emergence of black power” - A Fairclough
Briefly describe the history and beliefs of the Klu Klux Klan
Formed post civil war to oppose the reconstruction era
It had a strong belief in nativism, anti-semitism and white supremacy
The third iteration of the Klan in the 1950s/60s was largely made up of local groups of whites, often closely aligned with law enforcement
What role did the KKK play in opposition to civil rights?
The Klan fought civil rights at every turn - they developed death lists and carried out lynchings, intimidated black people to resist voter drives and assaulted protestors
Infamous incidents include the Bombing of 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama (1963) which killed four young black girls
The Klan’s close link with law enforcement meant they often escaped punishment
Thurgood Marshall Quote on the Changing Nature of the KKK
“The Klu Klux Klan never died. Some of them just stopped wearing sheets”
Briefly describe the history and beliefs of the White Citizen’s Council
Formed in Mississippi in October 1954 in response to Brown v Board of Education
Its members were professionals, businesspeople, and cotton planters - “they had the agenda of the Klan with the demeanour of the rotary” - Payne
By 1956, the Council had over 80,000 members throughout the South with links to local state government
What was the role of the White Citizen’s Council in opposition to Civil Rights?
The Council proved particularly effective in driving down the number of black people registering to vote by utilising intimidation and economic power
They were also linked to violence - Citizen’s Council Byron De La Beckwith killed NAACP Mississippi President Medgar Evers
In Mississippi, it managed to hold off school desegregation until 1964, and then had the wealth and connections to establish exclusionary private schools
What was the context for the Montgomery bus boycott?
Despite blacks making up 75% of passengers, Montgomery laws segregated buses
Black people could not sit in the same row as whites and were frequently forced to give up seats
Many drivers were members of the White Citizen’s Council
What occurred during the Montgomery bus boycott?
On 1 December 1955, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat for a white man on a bus on her way home from work
The bus driver called the police, and Parks was arrested and placed in jail until a $100 bail was posted
In response, Montgomery’s black community organised a boycott of the city’s bus routes
Led by Martin Luther King, over 40,000 people participated despite job losses, abuse arrests for conspiracy
The boycott lasted 381 days until the laws were declared unconstitutional by the US Supreme Court in the case of Browder v Gayle
What was the impact of the Montgomery Bus Boycott?
Civil rights groups identified Rosa Parks as the ideal figure to represent the bus boycott
Well educated/mannered, Parks was someone who could appeal to the wider white community
The violence of the white reaction encouraged moderates to support the black community
Although Parks’ case was held up in the state courts, the boycotts drew increased focus towards Browder v Gayle
Fairclough Quote on Lessons Learned from the Montgomery Bus Boycott
“The blacks learned a basic lesson that they applied over and over again during the next ten years: whit repression could be turned to their advantage. In responding to harassment, arrests, bombings and indictments, the MIA demonstrated a sure-footed ability to retain both the tactical initiative and the moral advantage”
Context for the Little Rock 9
The Brown I & II Supreme Court cases established that public high schools had to desegregate, but this was fiercely resisted in the South
The local NAACP had been working with the Little Rock School Board on a plan for gradual integration
9 black students were chosen to attend the all-white Central High School on 4 September 1957
What occurred on the intended day on enrolment?
On the day of enrolment, Governor Faubus called in the National Guard to prevent the black students from entering
Elizabeth Eckford arrived apart from the group
The National Guard refused her entry, and she was abused by a racist mob, who threatened to lynch her
Eckford managed to escape the mob with the assistance of a white observer
What was the impact of the Little Rock 9 on the Civil Rights Movement?
The chaos created in Arkansas forced President Dwight D Eisenhower to become involved
He sent 1200 members of the Army to Little Rock to ensure that the black students were able to enter
This sent a strong message that Southern States could not act independently from federal mandates
Photographs of the confrontation were evocative and widespread, drawing international attention to the cause of civil rights
On photograph of Eckford won the 1958 Pulitzer prize
Elizabeth Eckford Quote on Her Role in the Civil Rights Struggle
“Somewhere along the line, staying at Central High became an obligation. I realised that what were were doing was not for ourselves.”
What was the context for the Freedom Rides?
In Boynton v Virginia (1960), the Supreme Court held that segregation in public transport was illegal at the Federal level and could be enforced at the states
Despite this, many Southern states ignored this ruling and continued to segregates buses
What happened on the First Freedom Ride (May 4-14)?
CORE sent two integrated buses from Washington DC, intending to travel through the South to reach New Orleans
At every stop, the group challenged segregation by using facilities intended for the other race
In Anniston Alabama, one bus was forced off the road and firebombed
In Birmingham, the riders were beaten by a mob, leaving one comatosed and another paralysed
This violence led to Farmer making the decision to call off the rides
What happened on the Second Freedom Ride (May 19-24)?
Determined to finish the rides, SNCC organised a bus in Tennessee to drive to Alabama
Although initially accompanied by police, they were abandoned in Montgomery where the Klan attacked and beat them
The group carried on to Jackson, Mississippi, where they were arrested for ‘disturbing the peace’ and sentenced to 30 days jail time
What were the impacts of the Freedom Rides?
They inspired other groups to organise similar protests across the South, and even Australia, to protest segregation and discrimination
The international outrage over the beatings forced the Kennedy’s to act, and on May 29 Robert Kennedy demanded that the ICC end segregation on all its services
Niven Quote on Freedom Rides & Kennedy
“The Freedom Rides set a pattern for the Kennedy administration’s response to civil rights, in which they realised that they could no longer be on both sides”
What occurred during the March on Washington?
On 28 August, 1963, a total of 250,000 people from across America assembled at the Lincoln Memorial to protest for a Civil Rights Act
The March was a show of unity, with ten speakers from all different backgrounds and parts of the civil rights movement, including by Roy Wilkins of the NAACP, John Lewis of SNCC and even a Rabbi
Given the final speaking slot, Martin Luther King delivered his ‘I Have A Dream’ speech - it was televised to an audience of millions and has since become one of the most recognisable speeches in history
What was the impact of the March on Washington?
It demonstrated the strength of a unified civil rights movement, but also demonstrated growing divisions - John Lewis had to be convinced to tone down his speech for being too critical of the Kennedy’s
It established Martin Luther King as the unofficial leader of the civil rights movement, and his non-violent philosophy spread across the globe
Political divisions became even more cemented - the bill remained stuck in Congress and Southern Democrats increasingly fled to the Republican Party
What was the context for the Mississippi Freedom Summer?
By 1964, Southern Whites, angered by Johnson’s passing of the Civil Rights Act, increasingly flocked to the Republicans
The SNCC planned to challenge the Southern Democrats, who still supported segregation and held segregated primaries, by establishing a new interracial Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
The Council of Confederated Organisations flooded into Southern States - particularly Mississippi - to register new black voters for the upcoming elections
Many volunteers were students and church workers
What event came to define the Freedom Summer?
On 21 June 1964, three volunteers for CORE (Cheney, Schwerner and Goodman) were travelling through Mississippi to investigate a church bombing
The three were arrested on charges of speeding by deputy sheriff Cecil Price, a member of the Klan
Price later handed the volunteers over to a group of Klansmen, who shot all three and dumped their bodies in the wall of a dam
Bob Moses Quotes on the Outrage
“We saw that when three civil rights workers were killed, and two of them were white, the whole country reacted and went into motion. There’s a deep problem in that”
“We weren’t just up against the Klan or a mob of ignorant whites but political arrangements and mechanisms that went all the way to Washington DC”
What were the political impacts of the Mississippi Freedom summer?
Although Johnson refused to seat the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party at the DNC, they were given symbolic representation that allowed them to air their grievances to the world
Initially, the summer could be viewed as a failure - black voter registration only increased by a very small amount
However, the education provided ensured that when Johnson passed the voting rights act the following year, black people knew how to register and make their voices heard
How did the assassination of Martin Luther King serve as a turning point for the Civil Rights movement?
Many young activists become disillusioned with the philosophy of non-violence
Organisations such as CORE and SNCC moved towards Black Power and the BPP
Riots broke out across the United States, deepening political and racial divisions
Stickoff Quote on the Assassination of Martin Luther King
“The loss of Martin Luther King robbed the nation of its best last hope for fundamental change without violence, without hatred”
The Nature of Social Change - Education
Forced Integration as mandated by Brown vs Board of Education established a major social change - the 1960s school children of the south were the first generation to be in direct contact with another race
Programs such as ‘busing’ - where children travelled by bus to ensure a greater racial mix in schools became an effective desegregation tool
Despite this, Southern states attempted to find ways to fight this social change - namely through establishing white neighbourhoods and exclusive private schools
The extent of social change can be debated - a 2013 report by Richard Rothstein of the Economic Policy institute stated that “public schools are more segregated today than they were 40 years ago”
The Nature of Social Change - Black Power & Pride
Spreading in the late 1960s, Black Pride encouraged blacks to celebrate and embrace their culture and heritage
It was evident in music, with James Brown’s 1968 hit song ‘Say It Loud - I’m Black and Proud’
It could be seen in fashion - a number of black local government officials went to their inauguration ceremonies in traditional Kente Cloth
Events were established to embrace it - the Miss Black America Pageant began in 1968
1966 Ebony Magazine Quote on Black Pride
“We, as black women, must realise that there is beauty in what we are, without having to make ourselves into something we aren’t”
The Nature of Social Change - Economic
Despite political change, black people still faced broader social problems of unemployment and economic disparity caused by entrenched and systemic racism
Towards the end of the 1960s, King placed increasing emphasis on economic equality
In 2018, the Brookings institute found that the average net worth of a white American family is nearly ten times greater than that of an average American black family
Martin Luther King Quote on Economic Equality
“There’s no point winning the right to eat at the restaurant if nobody can afford to eat there”
What was the significance of the Civil Rights Act of 1957?
It was the first federal civil rights bill in 82 years
However, the Senate Committee watered it down so that it was more of a symbolic bill than a serious attempt to introduce lasting change
By 1960, the act had only improved the voting percentage of blacks by 3%
What was the significance of the Civil Rights Act 1964?
The Act banned discrimination based on race, colour, religion, sex or national origin, and sought to eliminate all loopholes previously used by the South
In Heart of Atlanta Motel Inc vs United States 1964, the Supreme Court upheld the right of the Federal Government to regulate private businesses
It lay the groundwork for profound social change, giving legislative support to social action
What was the significance of the Voting Rights Act 1965?
Eight days after the Voting Rights Act was passed a delegation went down to Selma, Alabama, and registered 381 black voters - more than had been registered in the past 65 years
In Mississippi, the percentage of African Americans registered to vote rose from 7% in 1965 to 67% by 1970
More than a quarter of a million African Americans registered to vote within the first year
The number of elected black officials in Southern States rose from 70 in 1965 to over a thousand in the space of a decade
Fairclough Quote on the Impact of the Voting Rights Act
“The crowning achievement of the civil rights movement, the voting rights act enfranchised black voters and democratised the south. It ended the era of Jim Crow”
Fairclough Quote on the Overall Impact of the Civil Rights Movement
“The movement had changed the nation, and buoyed the dreams of equality of people of every colour around the world”
Eskew Quote on the Overall Impact of the Civil Rights Movement
“The victories of the civil rights movement failed to solve the problems experienced by many black people. It had gained access for a few while never challenging the structure of the system”
What was the influence of President Truman with relation to civil rights?
In 1948, Truman issued an executive order ending segregation in the armed forces
He also established that government contracts were not to go to companies practicing segregation
However, his actions were constrained by his need fort Southern Senators to support the Korean War - for example he gave no support to the Committee on Fair Employment Practices when the attempted to end the segregation of buses in Washington
What was the influence of President Eisenhower with relation to civil rights?
Eisenhower had a very limited impact on civil rights action, as he opposed federal intervention, instead calling for “patience and conscience”
Although he eventually passed two Civil Rights Acts in 1957 and 1960, these did very little to help black voters
However, Eisenhower did intervene (albeit reluctantly) in the Little Rock 9 crisis, sending in Federal Troops
What was the influence of President Kennedy on Civil Rights?
Initially, Kennedy preferred a quiet, legalistic approach to civil rights
His AG Robert Kennedy brought 57 legal suits against Southern Voting Rights violations (in comparison, Eisenhower managed 6 over a 8 year period)
Between 1961-62, Kennedy tried to balance the interests of Southern Senators with civil rights activists, sending troops to protect protestors but also calling them ‘unpatriotic’
Ultimately, he did introduce the Civil Rights Bill which would eventually have a major influence
What was the influence of President Johnson on Civil Rights?
Although in his early political career, Johnson had been hesitant to act on civil rights, as President he made it one of his priorities
He fought hard for Kennedy’s civil rights bill, signing it into law in 1964, and then signing the voting rights act into law the following year
In 1965, he introduced medicare and medicaid for poor blacks, and in 1967 appointed Thurgood Marshall to the Supreme Court
Finally, he passed the Housing Act of 1968, prohibiting the segregation of neighbourhoods
What was the impact of the civil rights movement on Australia?
The Freedom Rides of 1961 inspired 34 USYD students from the Student Action for Aborigines Group to travel rural NSW by bus in 1965
Their aims were to draw attention to the poor state of Aboriginal health, expose social discrimination taking place and to encourage/support Aboriginal people to resist discrimination
The riders suffered verbal abuse and their bus was forced off the road outside of Walgett, drawing national attention to the blight of Indigenous Australians
Perkins (Organiser) Quote on the Australian Freedom Rides
“They were a copy of what happened in America, where people wanted to go out, get on a bus and expose discrimination wherever it may be”
