National Study: Russia 1917-41 Flashcards
What was the origin of the Bolshevik Party?
In 1903, the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party split into two factions - the more orthodox Mensheviks and the more radical Bolsheviks
What were three key beliefs of the Bolsheviks?
Lenin held that the bourgeois domination would be brief and followed by a second stage of the revolution - the ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’
Lenin argued that ‘permanent revolution’ would be best achieved by a party of tightly disciplined and professional revolutionaries
Lenin also acknowledged the rural nature of much of Russian society and said that the proletariat needed to enlist poorer peasants’ support to complete the revolution
What were two Bolshevik slogans?
All Power to the Soviets! (passing power to the workers)
Peace, Bread & Land! (withdrawal from the war and land redistribution)
Why did the Provisional Government fail?
Led by Lyov then Alexander Kerensky, the provisional government tried to bring moderate reform whilst keeping Russia in the war
Successive provisional governments were unable to resolve issues of peasants seizing land, regional independence movements and anti-war sentiment
Why were the Bolsheviks seen as a viable alternative to the Provisional Government?
Lenin opposed this provisional government and urged the Bolsheviks to stage a second revolution on behalf of the workers and peasants
The Bolsheviks gained popular support through their involvement in ending the September Kornilov coup
What occurred during the October Coup?
Kerensky’s decision to close the Bolshevik printing press provided an impetus
On 7 November, the Red Guards, led by Trotsky, seized control of key government buildings and arrested the leaders of the provisional government
Lenin formed a governing coalition with the support of the Socialist Revolutionaries
What are the three competing perspectives on the nature of the October Coup? (include quotes)
“The October Revolution in Petrograd was in a large measure a valid expression of widespread disenchantment with the results of the February Revolution and of popular aspirations for a brighter, more just future” - Alexander Rabinowitch
“October was a classic coup d’etat, the capture of governmental authority carried out with a show of mass participation but with hardly any mass involvement” - R. Pipes
“The Bolsheviks did not seize power, the picked it up” - Adam Ulam
What were some significant reforms that the Bolsheviks passed during their first two years in power?
The two most important early reforms were the Land Decree (which distributed land to the peasants) and the Peace Decree (which ended Russia’s involvement in WW1)
In July 1918, the Congress of Soviets adopted a new constitution that included nationalising land & banks, separating the church and state and giving equal rights to women and minorities
In January 1919, the Communist Party was divided into two subcommittees:
- The Politburo decided major policy - The Orgburo oversaw internal administration
What occurred during the 1917 elections?
Russia’s first ever democratic election for the Constituent Assembly was held in December 1917 and resulted in a victory for the Socialist Revolutionaries
When the new government refused to pass Bolshevik legislation, Lenin had it closed after only 12 hours
What were the three competing perspectives on the Bolshevik involvement in WW1?
Lenin called for peace at any cost
Bukharin urged turning the war into a broader Communist revolution across Europe
Trotsky stalled in the hope that a German popular uprising would take place - this never materialised and the Germans resumed their offensive in February
When was the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed and what were its conditions?
On March 3, Lenin signed the Treaty and ended Russian involvement in WW1
Under the Treaty, Russia had to:
- pay 600 million marks
- give up 30% of its population and
- surrender 89% of its coal territories
Who were the Bolsheviks fighting against in the Civil War?
In early 1918, civil war broke out between the Bolsheviks and an army of liberals, monarchists and ex-officers known as the ‘Whites’
The Whites received foreign support from Britain and France, who hoped that the defeat of the Bolsheviks would restore financial normalcy in Europe
Why were the Bolsheviks successful in the Civil War?
Trotsky, as Minister for War, helped to create a disciplined and highly trained Red Army that repelled the White forces
By 1920, most major counter-revolutionary groups had been exposed and defeated
The war was at an enormous cost - approximately 1.5 million combatants and 8 million civilians died following armed attacks, famines and disease
Why did Lenin feel the need to impose war communism?
During early Bolshevik rule, Lenin was happy to let much of the existing industrial system continue under state supervision - ‘state capitalism’
The ceasefire with Germany worsened the economic situation - over 70% of Russia’s industrial capacity was geared for war, and many areas couldn’t adjust
Petrograd had lost 60% of its workforce by 1918, and poor harvests led to peasants hoarding grain whilst the urban population starved
What was the nature and impacts of war communism?
Lenin imposed ‘war communism’ - all industry and foreign trade fell under the state, strict discipline was imposed in factories and armed squads requisitioned grain
7000 grain requisitioners were murdered in 1918, and by 1921, it is estimated that there were up to 7 million homeless or orphaned children in the USSR
The strict conditions led to famine, disease and peasant uprisings, with the most influential being the mutiny at Kronstadt naval base in 1921
What was the New Economic Policy?
At the Tenth Party Congress in 1921, Lenin replaced War Communism with the less severe New Economic Policy
While key economy sectors remained state-owned, small businesses were permitted
Bukharin encouraged the peasants to “enrich themselves” and trade food for goods
What were the conflicting Bolshevik perspectives on the NEP?
“We are making economic concessions in order to avoid political ones” - Bukharin
Trotsky decried the NEP as a “retreat to capitalism” and claimed that it represented “the first sign of the degeneration of Bolshevism”
What was the process of creating the USSR?
Soon after taking power, Lenin guaranteed that ethnic nationalities - such as Ukraine and Georgia - would be given rights of self-determination and even independence
Lenin later amended this to a federal structure, based on a system of seemingly democratic soviets (which covered for the power of the Communist Party)
In 1922, the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian and Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republics joined together to create the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)
Hirsch Quote on the Formation of the USSR
“A policy of dividing the peoples of the former Russian Empire into official nationalities turned out to be an effective means of consolidating the USSR”
What were the Bolshevik policies towards women?
The Bolsheviks believed that women suffered under class & family oppression
The Zhenotdel was established as the women’s section of the Central Committee, with the aim of organising and informing women as to the Party’s goals
Political equality was expanded, women gained the right to ‘no-fault’ divorce and in 1920 Russia became the first modern nation to legalise abortion
What were the Bolshevik policies on education?
The Bolsheviks made education for children free and compulsory
Under War Communism, between 1918-20, there was an open education policy that sought to encourage debate and develop children’s personalities
After 1921, education policy became more restricted and propagandised
What were the Bolshevik policies with relation to culture?
The People’s Commissariat of Enlightenment controlled culture & propaganda
They looked favourably on the Proletarian Culture (Proletkult) movement which sought to reject the bourgeois and create a new culture of and for the proletariat
There was a “nationalisation” of culture to create a Soviet national identity
What were the Bolshevik policies towards religion?
Communists saw religion as a superstitious barrier to creating a modern society
Monasteries and churches were stripped of their valuables and converted for everyday uses, while clergy were tried, imprisoned and executed
Religious teachings were banned in schools and secular holidays came into force
What were the Bolshevik’s policies towards the peasants?
The NEP’s main goal was to address the critical shortage of grain due to the civil war
The Bolsheviks sought to rebuild the economy via primitive socialist accumulation, a theory stating that modernisation could be achieved by harnessing the peasantry
However, the growth of a kulak class (wealthy capitalist peasants) threatened the political and social basis of the new socialist state
Kingston-Mann Quote on why the Bolsheviks were so focussed on the peasants
“The spectre of a resurgent peasantry aroused fears that a primitive, consumption-hungry rural populace might dictate its own terms in the disposal of agricultural output”
What was the significance of Lenin’s testaments?
Although Lenin had originally valued Stalin’s practical nature, he began to fear the power that he had gathered in the position of General Secretary
In 1922, Lenin wrote a testament in which he denounced Stalin and praised Trotsky, but the stroke which eventually resulted in his death meant he could not present it
“Stalin is intolerable in the position of General Secretary” - Lenin
The Central Committee ultimately determined that the testaments should not be released, as they attacked many of the Politburo members
McCauley quote on Stalin’s death
“Had not Lenin died, Stalin would probably have been sent to the provinces… Stalin had luck on his side”
What was the significance of the ‘Scissors Crisis’ to the power struggle?
After Lenin’s death, Stalin, Kamenev & Zinoviev formed a troika opposing Trotsky
Their first clash came during the ‘Scissors Crisis’ of 1923, when a fall in agricultural prices coincided with a rise in the price of manufactured goods
At the 1923 Party Congress, the troika successfully advocated giving priority to the recovery of the peasant sector over Trotsky’s call to support proletariat interests
What were Trotsky and Stalin’s competing visions for the USSR’s future?
Trotsky argued that the party was becoming anti-democratic and that the USSR needed to embrace ‘permanent revolution’ and spreading communism globally
Stalin advocated ‘Socialism in One Country’ - strengthening communism in the USSR, while engaging in normative state relations with other countries
What occurred at the 1925 Party Congress?
Trotsky was accused of factionalism, and when the Fourteenth Party Congress of 1925 supported Stalin’s vision, Trotsky was forced to resign as Commissar for War
“Little by little, he is aiming to switch the Party from a Leninist course to that of Trotskyism.” - Stalin, 1925
What was the significance of the NEP debate to the power struggle?
Zinoviev and Kamenev argued that the NEP was a temporary measure, and that to continue it would lead to a restoration of capitalism
Stalin sided with Bukharin in supporting the long-term preservation of the NEP, claiming that the peasants were not yet ready for collective farming
At a party meeting in November 1927, Stalin denounced Trotsky, Kamenev and Zinoviev as anti-Leninist, and orchestrated their expulsion from the Party
Why did the collectivisation debate allow Stalin to consolidate his power?
With his left-wing opponents removed, Stalin clashed with the right-wing faction on agricultural policy, reversing his policy and advocating rapid collectivisation
Opposing the NEP, Stalin expressed his determination to eliminate the Kulaks
In April 1929, Stalin expelled Bukharin from the Politburo, gaining supreme power
Deutscher Quote on Stalin’s Removal of Opposing Ideologies
“Trotskyism, Zinovievism, Bukharinism had, like some Atlantis, vanished from all political horizons… and he was now the sole survivor of Atlantis.”
What were three key reasons why Stalin was able to emerge as leader of the USSR by 1929?
Luck;
had Lenin not died, Stalin would likely have been expelled from the Party
His Skill as a Negotiator;/His position as General Secretary;
Stalin was the only Politburo member who also served in the Orgburo, allowing him to orchestrate appointments across the Party
Post-1921 Russian society was a bureaucracy; Stalin’s system of patronage ensured that lower level party members were loyal to Stalin
Trotsky’s Unpopularity;
Trotsky disliked administrative roles; he was seen as arrogant, aloof and intolerant of those he did not consider his equal (reading French novels in Politburo)
Harasymiw Quote on Stalin’s Abuse of the General Secretary Position
“The Nomenklatura was Stalin’s purge instrument in the 1920s”
Deutscher Quote on Stalin’s Skill as a Negotiator
“Cautious and cunning, he borrowed ideas and slogan from both right and left and combined them often quite incongruously. In this lay a great part of his strength/ He managed to blur every issue and confuse every debate”
Service Quote on Trotsky Unpopularity
“Trotsky offered a prospectus for revolutionary exploration without any guarantee that he would not steer the ship off the edge of the world”
Bukharin Quote on Stalin Duplicity
“Stalin is a Genghis Khan who sacrifices everything else to the preservation of power.. He changes theories according to who he needs to get rid of next.”
What were the competing perspectives on the nature of Stalinist ideology?
Stalin described his ideology as “Marxist-Leninism”, adapting Marxism for “the era of imperialism and the proletariat revolution”.
Trotsky - “Stalinism and Fascism…in many of their features show a deadly similarity”
Koltin Quote on the transformative nature of Stalinism
“Russian Stalinism was far more than merely a political revolution… it marked the establishment of a genuinely new society and culture.”
What are the three stages of Stalinism, and when did they take place?
Revolution From Above (1928-31)
Moderate Stalinism (1931-34)
The Great Terror (1934-38)
Key features of the ‘revolution from above’
Industrialisation, collectivisation & the war/terror in the countryside
The beginning of social transformation through the cultural revolution
Key features of moderate Stalinism + Van Geldren Quote
Consolidation, limited political opposition and the rehabilitation of industrial experts
The consolidation of the bureaucracy, Stalin’s influence weakened somewhat
“The coercive policies of the Cultural Revolution were replaced or supplemented by the use of inducements. A lightened mood swept the nation”
Key features of the ‘Great Terror’
Opposition was growing within the Party due to his “authoritarian rule… and his dangerous economic policies” - Conquest
Rise of Hitler and economic crisis 1932/33 provide Stalin with impetus for purges
Traditional Russian institutions are rehabilitated, and Stalin believed that socialism had now been achieved
Purging of the military & Old Bolsheviks ensured that Stalin was virtually unopposed
Was Stalin totalitarian? Discuss arguments for and against
It’s argued that the Stalinist state demonstrated some features of totalitarianism; centralised economic control, media censorship and elevation of a supreme leader
There was nevertheless some support for Stalin’s regime - urban industrialisation brought peasant families into towns with better prospects than the countryside
Stalin was not a sole dictator - he depended on supporters who surrounded him and with whom he ran the day-to-day workings of the state
Conquest Quote on why Stalin was totalitarian
“Society was reconstructed according to his formulas”
Fitzpatrick (Revisionist) Quote on why Stalin cannot be considered totalitarian
“The USSR was a complex bureaucracy with conflicting and overlapping areas of responsibility”
Explain the origins of Stalin’s collectivisation policy
In 1928, Russia faced a ‘procurement crisis’ - the USSR lacked the minimum amount of grain needed to support urban workers
At the Sixteenth Party Congress in 1929, Stalin announced collectivisation - replacing small, private farms with kolkhozes (collective farms) & sovkhoz (state farms)
Stalin also believed that collectivisation would assist the peasants in developing a socialist consciousness; “the middle peasant will be a part of the collective”
Explain the impacts of collectivisation, including dekulakisation
There was widespread peasant resistance, which Stalin blamed on the Kulaks - a class of landowners who had arisen under the NEP, who needed to be ‘liquidated’
Between 1929-32, over 600,000 Kulaks were evicted, executed or worked to death
The campaign led to a mass famine in 1932-33, where between 6-8 million died
Although collectivisation was virtually implemented by 1936, Soviet agricultural production had barely reached the levels recorded in 1913
Naimark Quote on dekulakisation
“Kulaks were subjected to the kind of dehumanisation and stereotyping that was common for victims of genocide throughout the twentieth century”
What was the rationale for the five year plans - include Stalin quote
Stalin argued that the USSR needed to change from an agrarian society to a modern, self-sufficient industrial country
“We are fifty or a hundred years behind advanced countries. We must make good this lag in years. Either we do it or they crush us” - Stalin
What were the five year plans, and what were their impacts on Soviet society?
Centralised direction dictated under ‘Five Year Plans’ commenced in October 1928
GOSPLAN (the State Planning Committee) was responsible for designing the Five-Year Plans and supervising the drive for industrialisation
It aimed to have heavy industries (coal, steel & oil) support increased manufacturing
Entire industrial communities were created, led by Stakhanovites - young workers who competed to see who could work the hardest
Although the plans meant that industrial output increased, living standards were lower in 1937 than 1928 due to food rationing and high prices
How did Stalin seek to expand the Communist Party?
Between 1923-27, Communist Party members increased from 350,000 to one million
The ‘Lenin Levy’ of 1923 sought to enrol young, enthusiastic workers into the Party to make it more representative of its supposed base
A large number of the posts had been filled with Stalin’s own nominees, with 60% of all local secretaries joining after 1921
How did Stalin utilise purges to pursue his political goals?
Purges had been a part of Communist Party operations since 1921, but early cleansing had taken the form of expulsion, or in extreme cases, exile
The assassination of Sergei Kirov in 1934 allowed Stalin to exploit the atmosphere of paranoia, given the power of the death penalty by the Central Committee
In 1936-38, major figures from the party such as Bukharin, Kamenev and Zinoviev were given show trials, found guilty and executed
681,692 were shot and 160,000 died in Gulags during 1937-38
Trotsky Quote on Opposistion to Stalin
“Under the Stalinist State every oppositionist becomes ipso facto a terrorist.”
Deutscher Quote on Stalin’s need for show trials
“they had to die as traitors, perpetrators of crimes beyond the reach of reason, for only then could Stalin be looked upon as the saviour of the country”
Briefly describe the role and scale of Gulags
The Chief Administration of Collective Labour Camps for political dissidents
One of the Gulag’s first major projects involving 300,000 prisoners was the competition of the Belomor Canal connecting the Red & White Seas in 1933
By 1941, 3.5 million Russians were in gulags
Describe the extent of propaganda and censorship in the Soviet Union
By August 1918, all independent journals and newspapers had been shut down and, through the creation of Gavlit in 1922, the Party completely controlled publishing
Stalin’s image came to dominate everyday life in the USSR, and extensive propaganda exaggerated his achievements and role in the revolution
By 1937, 35% of all posters in the Soviet Union showed images of Stalin
Fitzpatrick Quote on Stalin propaganda distortion
“Economic achievements were trumpeted, often in a way that involved blatant distortion of reality and manipulation of statistics”
Describe two goals of the cultural revolution + Fitzpatrick Quote
‘Soviet Man’ would be the most culturally and socially advanced people in the world
Socialist culture in the arts, education, science and entertainment would enlighten the workers, and the abolishment of classes would end hierarchies
“The purpose of the Cultural Revolution was to establish proletarian hegemony, which in practical terms meant both asserting party control over cultural life and opening up the Party to a new cohort of Communists and workers”
What were the impacts of the cultural revolution?
Workers’ cultural centres were established, 150,000 workers began higher education between 1929-32 and out of 861,000 professional jobs, 140,000 were filled by former factory workers
By 1932, Stalin had to end the cultural revolution as it risked moving power out of his control and that of the Party
Describe the role of the nomenklature system in consolidating and maintaining Stalin’s power
After the initial utopianism of the Cultural Revolution, Stalin’s tightening grip was reflected in the re-establishment of hierarchies
Workers promoted from the bench owed their new status to party patrons, and a complex system of patronage (nomenklatura) began to solidify
Future leaders of the Soviet Union such as Krushchev and Brezhnev benefited from the social mobility necessitated by the purges and grew fiercely loyal to the Party
Nove Quote on the Nomenklature system
“In all sorts of ways Stalin made it clear that dispensing privilege was an essential part of the power-mechanism, indeed of the Soviet system itself”
How did education and the arts change under Stalin?
The young Komonsol shock brigades of the late 1920s who attacked all ‘bourgeoise authority’ in education were quietly replaced with Party nomenklatura
Uniforms were reintroduced, traditional subjects appeared on the curriculum, old-fashioned teaching methods like rote learning and academic awards returned
Education became a means of the Party to ensure “forced trust” from the youth
Socialist realism - the idealised glorification of workers, the USSR & Communism - became the main determinant of art, film, music and literature
How did women’s rights change under Stalin?
Stalin supported a more traditional family structure as an increase in birth rates meant an increase in the future productive capacity of the USSR
From the 1930s, official party writings supported monogamy and premarital chastity, while being a successful wife and mother was presented as a woman’s goal
Stalin’s propaganda declared “Free love is a bourgeois invention - marriage is a lifelong union” and that a marriage is successful “only if there is progeny”.
Divorce became more difficult to obtain and in 1936 abortion was outlawed
Schuster Quote on the impact of Stalinism on women
Stalinism “wanted women to work hard to fulfil its plan… but was not willing to reward them with rights or political office”
What were the impacts of Stalin’s religious policies + Tyler Quote
Stalin’s regime marked an increased hostility towards religious institutions
In 1937 alone, over 88,000 Russian orthodox priests were killed by the secret police
As a result of this, the number of churches in the Soviet Union fell from over 29,000 in the early 1920s to less than 500 by 1941
“Stalinism became the new religion of the USSR”
What was the nature of early Bolshevik foreign policy under Lenin?
The Peace Decree urged the workers of Europe to lay down their arms and band together
“Either the revolution breaks out in the other countries, immediately, or at least very quickly, or we must perish” - Lenin
The Comintern was established in 1919 to support Communists and agitate revolution all over the world
What was the nature of Soviet foreign policy between 1923-33?
The failure of the 1923 revolution made the Bolsheviks realise that “the period of revolutionary upsurge was ended” - Carr
The Comintern’s aims were now intrinsically linked to the survival and consolidation of the Soviet Union on the international stage
The USSR made trade agreements (normative relations) with Britain in 1921, Germany in 1923 and relations peaked with the Treaty of Berlin in 1926
This shift was emphasised when the Comintern failed to support the 1926 General strike in Britain and Stalin encouraged the Chinese Communist Party to unite with the nationalists
The Comintern was increasingly under the authority of Stalin - only international organisations that accepted his complete leadership could work with it
What was the nature of Soviet foreign policy from 1934-38?
Despite previously rejecting the League of Nations as a ‘capitalists club’, the Soviet Union saw that it would provide collective security if Germany attacked
It joined the League in 1934 and allied itself with France and Czechoslovakia in 1935
In 1934, an alliance was formed with the Baltic states in order defend themselves against the growing threat of fascism
In order to preserve his newly established normative state relations, Stalin actively worked against Communist revolution in France and Spain
What was the nature of Soviet foreign policy between 1938-39?
In 1938, Germany demanded ethnic Germans in Western Czechoslovakia be reunited with Germany - the Soviet Union said that it would honour its treaty, but France refused
In 1937, Britain, France, Germany and Italy met, without the Soviet Union, to sign the Munich Agreement which permitted Germany’s annexing parts of Czechoslovakia
In response, Stalin orchestrated the German-Soviet non-aggression pact of August 1939, allowing the USSR to occupy Lithuania, Latvia & Estonia, as well as parts of Poland
How did early Soviet foreign policy reflect Marxist-Leninist ideology?
Early Bolshevik ideology believed that other nations would embrace socialism and reject colonial control over other peoples, or else the people would rise up in revolution
The early Bolsheviks had rejected conventional diplomacy with the faith of revolutions - however, this had to be engaged in when uprisings failed in Germany, Hungary & Austria
How was the ideological dispute between Stalin and Trotsky reflected in Soviet foreign policy?
The dispute hinged on Trotsky’s ‘permanent revolution’ and Stalin’s proposed ‘Socialism in One Country’
The dispute between Stalinism and Trotskyism was reflected in their different attitudes to events in China - Stalin held that China was not ready for socialist revolution, while Trotsky actively encouraged the uprising
How was Stalin’s ideology reflected in Soviet foreign policy between 1930-1934?
In 1930, Stalin was still consolidating his authority within Russia and clamping down on factionalism
In the early 1930s, Stalin saw social-democratic parties as Communism’s greatest enemy, whom he described as “social fascists”
Stalin ordered that there should be no political or electoral alliance between communist and other left-wing or socialist parties
Wood Quote on the impact of Stalin’s sectarian foreign policy
“While not itself directly responsible, this ultra-sectarian policy towards the left certainly facilitated the electoral victory of Adolf Hitler as German Chancellor in 1933”
How was Soviet foreign policy impacted by ideology between 1935-39
Post-1935, Soviet foreign policy became determined less and less by ideology and increasingly by the need for survival of the Soviet state
In 1935, Stalin’s ultra-sectarian policy was dropped for a ‘popular front’ of anti-Nazi forces, as Stalin unsuccessfully sought to create an international coalition against Hitler
Some elements of old Soviet ideology still remained - when the Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936, the Soviet Union were the only major power to intervene on the side of the leftists (albeit limited)
Wood Quote on Soviet foreign policy’s ideological shift
“Hitler’s aggressive policies prompted Stalin to order the formation of ‘popular fronts’ of all parties of the left, centre and even moderate right to combat the evils of fascism and National Socialism in Europe”
