Conflict in Indochina: 1954-79 Flashcards
What was the background to the First Indochina War?
Following the surrender of Japan in 1945, the Viet Minh took over Northern Vietnam and established the Democratic Republic of Vietnam
That same year, the US, the USSR, Britain and France met at the Potsdam Conference to establish national borders after WW2
The French, backed by the US (who saw a potential cold war threat) began to return to Vietnam, and when negotiations failed, the First Indochina War began in 1947
Quote from the Declaration of Independence of the DRV - Ho Chi Minh
“The whole Vietnamese people, animated by a common purpose, are determined to fight to the bitter end against any attempt to reconquer their country”
How did the Viet Minh defeat the French during the First Indochina War?
The Viet Minh fought a successful guerilla war against the French, receiving political support from agricultural communities and military hardware from China & the USSR
A series of trails through Laos (collectively known as the Ho Chi Minh trail) helped the Viet Minh move supplies and troops deep into Southern Vietnam
The defeat of the French at the 1954 battle of Dien Bien Phu symbolised the victory of guerilla warfare against conventional tactics
What was the nature and result of the 1954 Geneva Conference?
In April 1954, the UK & USSR hosted the Geneva Conference to determine the future of Indochina, which resulted in the Geneva Accords
The agreement included a ceasefire and the formal division of Vietnam along the 17th parallel (the Viet Minh agreed to this under Chinese & Soviet pressure)
The accords also stated that Vietnam would hold free elections in 1956, but the Communists doubted the US intentions
Ho Chi Minh Quote after the Geneva Conference
“We should not be complacent. Our victory has wakened the Yankee imperialist. He is adjusting his conspiracy and plan to prolong the war”
During the Geneva Conference, US President Eisenhower first laid out what theory?
The Domino Theory - which would come to define US foreign policy for the next two decades
“You have a row of dominoes set up, you knock over the first one, and what will happen to the last one is that it will go over very quickly”
Who was the leader of South Vietnam from 1954-64?
The Americans hoped that Ngo Dinh Diem, former provincial governor, could be the leader of an anti-Communist South Vietnam
However, Diem’s Can Lao Party was nepotistic and fundamentally undemocratic
Why was Ngo Dinh Diem deeply unpopular?
In 1959, Diem established the hated Agroville Program, which forcibly removed farmers from their lands into hamlets designed to protect them from Communists
Diem also relied heavily on American military support and financial support for basic economic commodities
Diem was seen as aloof from rural Vietnamese, lacking charm and charisma of Ho
Extract from The Caravelle Manifesto (1960) signed by 18 prominent South Vietnamese
“The people do not know a better life or more freedom under the regime which you have created. A constitution has been established in form only.”
What were the political and economic developments in North Vietnam between 1954-60?
Between 1954-56, North Vietnam undertook ‘purification’ to eliminate opposition
Thousands of landowners, capitalists and French loyalists were executed
In 1957, Ho undertook land reform under a cooperative strategy
This process was a success, and by 1960 rice production had more than doubled its 1954 total
By 1960, most North Vietnamese were supportive of the Communists
What defined US foreign policy to Vietnam up until 1960?
Since 1949, US foreign policy had followed the ‘Truman Doctrine’ which used a strategy of containment to stop the spread of Communism
The US’s financial support and weapons provision for South Vietnam was justified by the domino theory
Many in the US assumed that Ho Chi Minh was controlled by larger communist powers such as China & the USSR, ignoring the aspect of nationalism
VP Johnson Quote on North Vietnam Influence
“Over this war lies the deepening shadow of Communist China… the contest in Vietnam is part of a wider pattern of aggressive purposes”
What was the impact of the policies President Kennedy adopted to Vietnam?
Although Kennedy was initially cautious about American involvement militarily, Viet Cong success at the Battle of Ap Bac (1962) led him to contend that only firepower could win the war
Kennedy was advised that progress could not be achieved with Diem, and on November 1 1963, the generals of the ARVN staged a coup and executed him
This ushered in a period of ‘governments by turnstile’ until General Thieu established some stability in 1965
Before his assassination, Kennedy’s presidency saw American military personnel in Vietnam increase from 800-16,000
What was the background and events of the Gulf of Tonkin incident?
In February 1964, the US undertook OPLAN 34A, involving South Vietnamese special forces making a series of raids on North Vietnamese Islands and coastal positions
On 2 August, 1964, South Vietnamese gunboats backed by the US navy attacked a North Vietnamese installation on the island of Hon Me, in the Gulf of Tonkin
North Vietnamese patrol boats pursued the attackers and encountered a US destroyer, the USS Maddox, which was in the area on an intelligence mission
A brief skirmish ensued which resulted in damage to the Maddox and Turner
What was the immediate impact of the Gulf of Tonkin incident?
On the 7th of August, both chambers of the US congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin resolution authorising the use of conventional military force in Southeast Asia
This marked the beginning of open warfare between the US & North Vietnam
President Johnson Quote announcing his support for the Gulf of Tonkin resolution
“We are in South Vietnam because we have a promise to keep. Since 1954 every American president has offered support to defend the people of South Vietnam, and I intend to keep that promise”
What were the two branches of Johnson’s foreign policy approach to the Vietnam conflict?
Under Johnson, the United States adopted a ‘carrot and stick’ approach
Johnson appeared to seek diplomatic resolution in April 1965, declaring that he was ready to go ‘anytime, anywhere’ for negotiations
In March 1965, Johnson launched Operation Rolling Thunder - a massive bombing campaign against North Vietnam that lasted until October 1968
By the end of 1965, there were more than 100,000 US troops in Vietnam in full combat roles of ‘search and destroy’
Johnson Quote justifying Vietnam involvement
“We are also in Vietnam to strengthen world order. To leave Vietnam to its fate would shake the confidence of the globe in the value of American commitment and in the value of America’s world”
Secret 1965 memorandum from McNaughton to McNamara
US AIMS IN VIETNAM:
70% to avoid a humiliation US defeat (to our reputation as a guarantor)
20% to keep South Vietnam territory from Chinese hands
10% to permit the people of South Vietnam to enjoy a better, freer way of life
What was the PAVN?
The People’s Army of Vietnam, led by General Giap, functioned as the conventional army of North Vietnam,
What were the strategies that the PAVN used?
Population Control: loyal hamlets provided places to hide, and some paid 4 times as many taxes to the PAVN as they did to the ARVN
Attrition: the PAVN hoped to drag out the war until the US could no longer justify the human and financial cost
Controlling Battles: 88% of engagements in the Second Indochina War were initiated by North Vietnam
Elite Sappers: groups of soldiers especially adept at infiltrating and attacking fortifications, gained infamy after victory at Fire Base Mary Ann in 1971
NVA General Tran Van Tra on Attrition Strategy
“Our intentions were to fight a long time and cause heavy casualties to the United States, so the United States would see the war was unwinnable and leave”
Who were the NLF?
The National Liberation Front sought to create instability in South Vietnam by fighting a guerilla conflict
What were the strategies that the NLF used?
Small-Scale Fights: aimed to inflict maximum casualties with minimum losses, when the US became involved, small scale actions increased by 150%
Close Study of Enemy: political dimensions of attacks were planned months ahead
Always Moving: NLF units seldom spent more than 2-4 days in one location
Ruthless Traps: 11% of US fatalities and 17% of injuries were caused by booby-traps
NLF soldier Truong Nhu Trang on the political dimensions of NLF engagements
“Every military clash, every demonstration, every propaganda appeal was seen as part of an integrated whole; each had consequences far beyond its immediate apparent results”
Who were the ARVN?
The ARVN were South Vietnam’s ground forces and performed changing roles throughout the Second Indochina War
What were the strategies that the ARVN used?
Supporting the US: between 1965-72, the ARVN often served as the military force behind US operations
Advanced Technology: ARVN troops pioneered using the M113 armoured personnel carrier as a fighting vehicle
Vietnamisation: after the US pullout, the ARVN proved themselves an effective fighting force so long as they had US supplies and financial backing
Extensive Troops: In 1972, the ratio of ARVN to PAVN was 3:1 - far fewer than the required counter-insurgency ratio of 10:1
Historian Bradley Quote on the Impact of Vietnamisation
“The impact of Vietnamisation was ambiguous. Almost overnight the ARVN had become one of the largest and best equipped armies in the world. But if on paper the ARVN was a formidable force, many of its fundamental weaknesses still persisted. The process of ‘ghosting’, by which names of dead & deserted soldiers were kept on paty rosters so that the officer in charge could pocket the pay, ran as high as 20%. Desertion was chronic, as was the lack of qualified and honest officers”
What were the strategies that the US Army used in Vietnam?
Bombing: 3 million tonnes of bombs were dropped on Vietnam - more than on all of Europe during the entire Second World War
Air & Artillery: of the 12,000 US helicopters sent to Vietnam, more than half were shot down or lost
Technology: more than 388,000 tonnes of napalm dropped on Vietnam in a decade
Search & Destroy: although effective in some areas, these missions were often based on poor intelligence and generated high civilian casualties
Soldier Phillip Caputo Quote on Search & Destroy Effectiveness
“There was no pattern to these patrols and operations… we fought a formless war against a formless enemy who evaporated like the morning jungle mists, only to materialise in some unexpected place”
What was the 1968 Tet Offensive?
On January 31 1968, North Vietnam launched a massive offensive of over 80,000 NAV troops and 17,000 NLF guerrillas on 36 provincial capitals in South Vietnam
It was hoped that the offensive would lead to a popular uprising against President Thieu, a capitulation of the ARVN and a withdrawal of US troops from the conflict
What was the military impact of the Tet Offensive on North Vietnam? + Bowden Quote
Tet was a military disaster for the North - poor communications meant some units attacked early, the ARVN held their ground, and there was no uprising of the South
“We underestimated our enemies and overestimated ourselves” - NVA General Tra
Between 30,000-60,000 communist militants were killed and “the southern born guerillas, the Vietcong, were effectively destroyed” - Tim Bowden
