POS The ideal of positive science (3)

Question 1

What are the two main goals of critical rationalism?

Answer 1

• Rationalism: We should come up with statements that tell us as much as possible about reality (have a lot of empirical content, a lot of information in a statement)
• Critical part: The theories that have been constructed should be tested and tested repeatedly trying to invalidate it.

Question 2

Thomas Kuhn’s theory of paradigms

Answer 2

• a scientist starts to collect individual facts about a topic
• there is not theory yet
• when multiple groups of scientists do this a school of thought emerges
• schools become dominant when they research, come out with explanations and scientific data
• the dominant school of thought creates a paradigm

Question 3

What does a paradigm consist of?

Answer 3

1. Exemplars: examples of how to apply the theory
2. Symbolic generalization: fundamental theories that all scientists agree with. e.g. formulas or mathematical models
3. Scientific values: values that indicate what good research is and what is not.
4. Methodological prescriptions: (How to observe? What counts as an observation?)

Question 4

How long is a paradigm followed?

Answer 4

Until an anomaly is encountered

Question 5

What is an anomaly?

Answer 5

An observation that conflicts with the rules of the paradigm

Question 6

What should we do when we encounter an anomaly at first instance?

Answer 6

We should try to fit the anomaly into the theory.

Question 7

What happens when a paradigm encounters an anomaly?

Answer 7

It will lead to a crisis and will allow paradigm B to occur The same will happen over again

Question 8

Kuhns two phases of science

Answer 8

• normal science

- revolutionary science

Question 9

normal science

Answer 9

Science within the boundaries of the paradigm.

This will lead to a cumulative growth of the knowledge.

Question 10

revolutionary science

Answer 10

Cause a change at the level of the paradigm.

This will lead to a revolutionary change/growth of knowledge.

Question 11

Conclusions based on Kuhn

Answer 11

• truth only exists within paradigms
• there are no independent criteria to help you choose a paradigm. You cannot say that a new paradigm is better than another.
• Science is a human activity. We only have human standards about what is good and what is not. Something is only true, when humanity says it is true and when society accepts it as true.

Question 12

Which question did Quine and Duhem ask to start their theory?

Answer 12

Why do we make a distinction between analytic and synthetic statements?

Question 13

What do the synthetic and analytical statements together reflect?

Answer 13

The from and content

Question 14

Intensional statements (analytical)

Answer 14

• the conjunction of general attributes that define a concept (the conjuncts are each necessary and jointly sufficient)

contributes to the form of phenomena

Question 15

Extensional statements (synthetic)

Answer 15

• can be described as the class of observable phenomena is reality
  contributes to the content of the phenomena also called empiric concept
  e.g. the set of all existing ravens

Question 16

What do you want to do with intensional statements?

Answer 16

Define them (Define what a raven is based on its characteristics)

Question 17

What do you want to do with extensional statements?

Answer 17

categorize observations (specify each bird that belongs to the class raven)

Question 18

Should Inensional statements and Extensional statements match?

Answer 18

Yes, because the scientific language requirement is that they are logical and consistent.

Question 19

What does Quine say about why there can not be made a distinction between analytical and synthetic statements?

Answer 19

1. There is no fundamental difference between analytic and synthetic statements.
2. When testing sentences, it is impossible to test individual sentences, as we can only test a whole system of sentences (e.g. a theory or a language)
3. Every sentence within a knowledge can be given up if to relieve a conflict btw. a theory and observations
4. Which sentence you give up in case of a falsification is a pragmatic matter

–> You can only reject an existing theory if, you have found a new one.

Question 20

Duhem’s three claims

Answer 20

• every test of a hypotheses (H1) requires background assumptions (H2,H3,H4)
• we never test a single hypothesis but always a whole system of hypotheses that together constitute a theoretical or conceptual framework
• we can never be sure whether the observation or the conclusion is incorrect. The choice that you make to choose for the observation or the theory, is regarded true.

Question 21

What do Quine and Duhem say about that the observations?

Answer 21

they should always be discarded, unless you have a new theory.