Populations and Sustainability Flashcards
1
Q
Draw, label, and annotate with explanations, a generalised growth curve for natural populations.
A
- Phase 1/ lag phase/ slow growth - Small numbers of individuals that are initially present reproduce increasing the total population. Birth rate> death rate.
- Phase 2/ exponential phase/ rapid growth- Number of breeding individuals increases, the total population multiplies exponentially. No constraints. birth rate»death rate.
- Phase 3/ stationary phase/ stable state- further population growth is prevented by external constraints. Population size fluctuates, but overall its size remains relatively stable. Birth rates= death rates. Slight changes- fluctuations in limiting factors e.g prey
2
Q
Define abiotic factor
A
Non-living conditions in a habitat
3
Q
Define biotic factor
A
The living components of an ecosystem.
4
Q
Define limiting factor
A
An environmental resource or constraint that limits population growth
5
Q
Define carrying capacity
A
The maximum population size that an environment can support
6
Q
Give 3 examples of limiting factors for population size and explain how each affects population size.
A
- Competition between the organisms for resources
- Build-up of the toxic by-products of metabolism
- Disease
7
Q
Define Density dependent factors
A
- Any factor limiting the size of a population whose effect is dependent on the number of individuals in the population.
- For example, disease will have a greater effect in limiting the growth of a large population, since overcrowding facilitates its spread.
- Other examples- competition, predation, grazing
8
Q
Define Density independent factors
A
- Factors that have an effect on the whole population regardless of its size
- e.g. Natural disasters- fires, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and storms
9
Q
Define migration
A
Seasonal movement of animals from one region to another.
10
Q
Define immigration
A
The movement if individual organisms into a particular area increases population size.
11
Q
Define emigration
A
The movement of individual organisms away from a particular area decreases population size
12
Q
Define intraspecific competition
A
Competition between organisms of the same species
13
Q
Define interspecific competition
A
Competition between organisms of different species
14
Q
Give 4 examples of what organisms might compete for.
A
- Food
- Shelter
- Space
- Light
15
Q
Describe and explain the “competitive exclusion principle”.
A
- Two species competing for the same resources cannot co-exist. (If they compete for all the same resources)
- If two species are competing for the same food source, but one is better adapted, the less well adapted species is likely to be out-competed
- If conditions remain the same, the less well adapted species will decline in number until it can no longer exist in the habitat alongside the better adapted species.
16
Q
Give an example of interspecific competition in the UK
A
- Red and grey squirrels
- In 1870s grey squirrel was introduced to UK
- Its population quickly increased and resulted in red squirrel disappearing from many areas
- Grey squirrel can eat a wider range of food than the red squirrel and as it is larger can store more fat
- This increases its chances of survival and therefore ability to reproduce thus increasing its population.
- An increasing population of grey squirrels further reduces the food supply available to the red squirrels- reducing their ability to survive and reproduce.
17
Q
Explain why intraspecific competition is an example of a density dependent biotic factor,
A
- The availability of the resource they are competing for determines the population size.
- The greater the availability the larger the population that can be supported.
- This results in fluctuations in the number of organisms present in a particular population over time
18
Q
Describe how intraspecific competition effects population size over time
A
- Wavey graph- up then down
- Step 1- When a resource is plentiful in a habitat, all organisms have enough of the resource to survive and reproduce- increase in population size
- Step 2- As a result of the increased population, there are many more individuals that share the food or space available. Resources are now limited; not enough is available for all organisms to survive. Population size will decrease.
- Step 3- Less competition exists as the smaller population means less organism are competing for the same resources. This means more organisms survive and reproduce, resulting in population growth.
- Repeating cycle
19
Q
Define predator
A
- Organisms that kill and eat another organism
- Predators have evolved to become highly efficient at capturing prey e.g. sudden bursts of speed, stealth and fast reactions
20
Q
Define prey
A
- Organisms that are killed and eaten by other organisms
2. Prey have evolved to avoid capture- camouflage, mimicry or defence mechanisms (spines).
21
Q
Define predation
A
- The capturing of prey in order to sustain life
- A biotic factor
- A type of interspecific competition
22
Q
Describe and explain the general pattern shown in predator-prey relationships.
A
- Peaks and troughs in the size of prey population are mirrored by peaks and troughs of predator population after a time delay.
- Stage 1- An increase in prey populatio provides more food for predators, allowing more to survive and reproduce- increase in predator population
- Stage 2- Increased predator poplation eats more prey organisms, causing a deline in prey population Death rate of prey> birth rate
- Stage 3- Reduced prey population can no longer support the large predator population. Intraspecific competition for food increases , resulting in decrease in size of predator population.
- Stage 4- Reduced predator numbers result in less of the prey population being killed. More prey organisms survive and reproduce, increasing prey population.
- Cycle continues
23
Q
Define the terms “conservation” and “preservation”, and explain the difference between the
A
- Conservation = the maintenance of biodiversity through human action or management.
- Preservation = the protection of an area by restricting or banning human interference.
- Preservation is when humans try to leave an area alone whereas conservation is when humans actively do things to support the biodiversity of an area.
24
Q
Define reclamation
A
A form of conservation in which ecosystems which have been damaged or destroyed are restored.
25
Give 3 examples of conservation
1. Using grazing to keep Fenland from becoming woodland
2. Removal of invasive species such as rats from islands
3. Legal hunting of animals in nature reserves to reduce the population from potentially damaging levels
26
Give 3 examples of preservation
1. International agreement to prevent large scale human activity in Antarctica
2. Gating pristine caves to prevent people entering in order to protect the fragile ecosystem and geology
3. Preventing access to some Galapagos islands or some parts of some islands
27
Define the terms “ecological”, “economic”, and “aesthetic” when referring to reasons for maintaining biodiversity.
1. Ecological - reasons concerning the potential impact on other species (and whole ecosystems)
2. Economic - reasons involving people, communities, or companies earning a living or making more money from the biodiversity in a sustainable way
3. Aesthetic - reasons based around the beauty of nature and its ability to enrich lives and inspire people.
28
Describe 3 aesthetic reasons for maintaining biodiversity.
1. Inspiration for musicians, artists, writers and poets
2. People enjoy the beauty in wildlife and landscape photography
3. People get enjoyment from being out in “nature” due to the beauty of it
29
Describe 8 economic reasons for maintaining biodiversity.
1. Biodiversity attracts tourism and so brings money into an area
2. Biodiversity maintains the soil and so farmers can make money in a sustainable way
3. Biodiversity protects against natural disasters and so less money will be spent rebuilding
4. There is financial gain to be had from marketing a product as sustainably managed (e.g. timber or fish)
5. Potential economic value of cross-breeding crops with wild species to improve yield.
6. Potential, as yet undiscovered, economic value of known species.
7. Potential economic value of unknown species
8. Sustainable management allows money to be made in a trade by subsequent generations
30
Describe 3 ecological reasons for maintaining biodiversity.
1. Due to the great interdependence of organisms it is impossible to predict the consequences of losing one species in an ecosystem
2. Keystone species are likely to have a major impact on a whole ecosystem if they are lost
3. Maintaining ecosystems (and their whole biodiversity) protects all species, even those without the conservation
31
Define the term “social” when referring to reasons for conservation of biological resources and give two examples of it.
1. Social- reasons that are for the benefit of society, providing areas for relaxation, exercise and hobbies.
2 .e.g. more jobs and less unemployment through ecotourism. less homelessness if there are fewer natural disasters, maintenance of jobs and culture through sustainable management of fishing, bird watching, wild camping, nature walking
32
Define the term “ethical” when referring to reasons for conservation of biological resources and give two examples of it.
1. Ethical- reasons based on the rights given to organisms (or the environment) by some people, or on the moral responsibility we have to future generations
2. e.g. species have the right to life and so we shouldn’t let them go extinct, we have the responsibility to look after the natural habitat so that future generations can get the same aesthetic, social and economic benefits that we have gained from it.
33
Define the term sustainability
The ability to continue a particular action indefinitely without using resources in a way that could eventually make them run out and without leading to irreversible damage to the environment.
34
Define sustainable resource
A renewable resource that is exploited economically so that it will not diminish or run out.
35
Describe 5 aims of sustainability
1. Preserve the environment
2. Ensure resources are available to future generations
3. Allow humans in all societies to live comfortably
4. Enable less economically developed countries (LEDCs) to develop, through exploiting their natural resources
5. Create a more even balance in the consumption of these resources between more economically developed countries (MEDCs) and LEDCs
36
Describe 3 things that can be done to reduce the demand for a resource and therefore make it easier to manage sustainably.
1 . Reduce the requirements for the resource
2. Reuse the resource
3. Recycle the resource, or other things made of the same material to produce more of the resource.
37
State two methods of small scale timber production.
Coppicing and Pollarding
38
Define the term coppicing
Cutting a tree trunk back close to ground level to allow new shoots to grow up from this stump, and then harvesting the shoots a regular intervals
39
Define the term pollarding
Cutting a tree trunk back to a few metres above ground level to allow new shoots to grow up from the top of this trunk, and then harvesting the shoots a regular intervals
40
Define the term rotational coppicing
1. Dividing woodland up into sections, trees are only coppiced in one section each year.
2. There are enough sections so that the first section has fully regrown by the time all other sections have been coppiced.
41
Describe the process of coppicing
1. A tree trunk is cut back close to ground level in winter.
2. The next spring new shoots start to rapidly grow.
3. Eventually these shoots are large enough to have economic value and are harvested.
4. The next spring new shoots start to grow and the process can be repeated.
42
Explain the advantage of rotational coppicing.
1. Rotational coppicing maximises biodiversity as there is always a part of the woodland at each stage of regrowth – providing a variety of habitats throughout he woodland.
2. Animals that require fuller regrowth can easily move to a nearby area when their section is coppiced.
3. Rotational coppicing provides a continuous yield from a woodland every year.
43
Explain an advantage of pollarding over coppicing.
1. Because the new growth is higher up in pollarded trees- it is protected against damage from grazers such as deer.
2. Also the tree trunks provide a habitat that is absent in coppiced trees.
44
Describe the difference between harvesting in large scale timber production and harvesting in small scale timber production.
1. In large scale timber production, large areas of forest are felled at a time and the felled trees are destroyed and will not regrow.
45
Describe 5 practices that can help large scale timber production to be sustainable.
1. Selective cutting only removes the largest trees
2. Replace trees through replanting
3. Plant trees an optimal distance apart to reduce competition – this maximises yield
4. Manage pests and pathogens to maximise quality and size of yield
5. Ensure that areas of forest remain for indigenous people
46
Describe the disadvantages of large scale timber production.
Destruction of habitats, soil minerals are reduced, bare soil is susceptible to erosion.
47
Name and describe an international agreement that aims to ensure fishing is sustainable in the EU.
1. Common fisheries policy – sets fishing quotas on the numbers of certain species of fish that are allowed to be caught in a particular area in order to maintain a natural population of these species that can reproduce sufficiently to maintain their population.
48
Describe 3 methods which can help fishing to be sustainable.
1. The use of nets with different mesh sizes – e.g. having a large mesh size allows immature fish to escape.
2. Allowing commercial and recreational fishing only at certain times of the year. This protects the breeding season of some fish species, allowing populations to increase back to a sustainable level.
3. The introduction of fish farming to reduce the number of wild caught fish needed to meet demand.
49
Explain why overfishing in one particular area is not likely to make a species extinct.
If a species has a wide range then overfishing in one area may make it locally extinct but the species itself will not go extinct as the fish still survives in other areas.
50
State what MMNR stands for and where it is.
MMNR = Masai Mara National reserve
| It is in southern Kenya
51
Describe the ecosystem of the Masai Mara.
1. It is a savannah ecosystem with rich grassland and woodland adjacent to the Mara river running through it.
2. Away from the river it is mainly open plains with scattered shrubs and trees.
3. A large zebra and wildebeest migration passes through it annually, and other large mammals living there include: buffalo, elephants, leopards, lions and black rhinos.
52
Describe the impact local human populations have had on the ecosystem of the Masai Mara.
1. The main impact has been the changes in livestock grazing. Initially the people had a semi-nomadic lifestyle moving from place to place. This allowed time for vegetation to recover from the grazing.
2. Grazing is now limited to areas around the edge of the reserve and there are larger herds.
3. There are also more people and so more trees are removed for fuel.
4. Both of these mean that vegetation doesn’t have time to recover and there is a great risk of soil erosion.
5. On top of this some of the land has been converted to crop land. This means nutrients are used up and there is then a reliance on fertilisers.
53
Define the term “ecotourism”, explain its value to the Masai Mara and state 3 principles of ecotourism.
1. Ecotourism- Tourism directed towards natural environments to support conservation efforts and observe wildlife.
2. Ecotourism provides and economic input to the local community, it raises awareness of local issues and it is less damaging to the environment than agricultural practices.
3. Principles of ecotourism:
a) Ensure tourism doesn’t exploit the natural environment or local communities
b) Consult and engage with local communities
c) Ensure infrastructure developments benefit local people
54
Describe the negative impacts of ecotourism.
1. Soil erosion and habitat changes due to repeated use of hiking trails or mechanised transport
2. Litter
3. The requirement for more waste management
Strain on local infrastructure
55
Describe the change in population size of the black rhino since the early 1970s and describe the threats to the black rhino and what conservation efforts were put in place.
1. Population in the Masai Mara:
1972 – >100
1982 – “ a handful”
Mid 1990s – increased but not back to the level of the early 1970s
2. The main threat was and is poaching (the horn is part of traditional medicine)
3. Active conservation and protection programme to encourage balance between the needs of local communities and wildlife.
4. Reserve rangers employed, equipment and infrastructure supplied to protect against poaching.
56
Describe 4 scientific research projects that have been undertaken in the Masai Mara.
1. Behaviour and physiology of spotted hyena
2. Flow assessment for Mara river basin
3. Mara predator project cataloguing and monitoring lion populations – identifying population trends and responses to changes in human activity
4. Mara-Meru cheetah project – monitoring populations and evaluating the impact of human activity on behaviour and survival
57
Describe 4 ways in which there is a conflict between human needs and conservation/preservation in the Masai Mara and suggest how this conflict can be balanced.
Conflict
1. Fencing land reduces elephant damage to crops but impacts on migration routes
2. Hunting/poaching provides food and livelihood but reduces populations sizes of endangered species
3. Wild populations need to use their own ecosystem but allowing wild populations to come into close proximity to livestock generates competition between livestock and wild populations as well as allowing for the transmission of disease
4. Land is needed for homes, cattle and agriculture but land is also needed for the wild populations
Balancing conflict
1. Ecotourism
2. Compensation
3. Legal hunting to cull excess wild animals
58
Describe the location of the Terai region of Nepal.
1. Southern Nepal
| 2. South side of the Himalayas (technically the Bhabhar and Siwalik mountain ranges)
59
Describe the ecosystem of the Terai region of Nepal.
1. Rich agricultural area
2. 25-50km wide
3. Hot and humid in the summer months
4. Lowlands with well watered flood plain
5. Alluvial soil rich in plant nutrients
6. Extreme biodiversity
7. Contains thick forest with Bengal tiger, Sloth bear and Indian rhino
8. Pipal and bamboo as well as many other subtropical plants
60
Describe the impact local human populations have had on the ecosystem of the Terai region.
1. There is a high population density
2. It is the main agricultural area for the country
3. t is an important source of national income
4. All of this means that the natural resources are at risk of being overused
5. Poverty and corruption have lead to large areas of forest being cleared for agriculture or to sell the timber. 6. This has exacerbated the effects of monsoon flooding leading to disruption to the communities down stream.
61
Describe how sustainable forest management is helping to balance the conflict between human needs and conservation/preservation in the Terai region.
1. It provides a livelihood for local people, ensures conservation of forests and provides the state with considerable income.
2. To achieve this there has been national legislation and local community forestry groups have been set up.
3. These groups have their own operational plans, set harvesting rules, rates and prices for products and determine how surplus income is distributed.
4. Cooperative networks also work together (e.g. gaining forestry stewardship council (FSC) certification).
62
]Describe 6 positive outcomes of community forestry groups in the Terai region.
1. Improvement in conservation of forested regions (increased area and density of forests conserved)
2. Improved soil and water management
3. Increase in retail price of products so greater economic input to the region
4. Employment and income generation through forest protection and production of non-timber products
5. Sustainable wood fuel sources make up ¾ of local household energy needs
6. Securing biodiversity of forested areas
63
Describe 6 management strategies for sustainable agriculture that help protect the Terai region.
1. Production of fruit and veg in hills and mountain regions to avoid further intensification of the Terai
2. Improving irrigation facilities to enhance crop production.
3. Improving fertilisation techniques to enhance crop yields – e.g. manure
4. Multiple cropping – more than one crop grown no a piece of land each season
5. Growing nitrogen fixing crops
6. Growing varieties resistant to biotic and abiotic challenges
64
State some locations of peat bogs in the UK.
1. Peat-based soils include fenland, moorland and “lowland raised bogs”. Bogs and moorland are acidic whereas fenland is alkaline.
2. 10% of UK is peat of one form or another (80% of this is in poor condition).
3. Some locations include: fenland in east Anglia, moorland in the highlands of Scotland, Dartmoor, Exmoor, Snowdonia, and the lake and peak districts.
65
Describe the ecosystem of peat bogs.
1. Acidic and waterlogged, anaerobic conditions prevent decay.
2. Plants include mosses (mainly sphagnum), sedges, bog cotton, cotton sedge and heathers. There are some shrubs but few trees.
3. Insects include butterflies, moths, dragonflies and damselflies.
4. There are many spiders and frogs.
5. There are many nesting birds. They are often ideal hunting grounds for birds of prey. Many of the animals and plants live only in this ecosystem.
66
Describe the impact local human populations have had on the ecosystem of peat bogs.
1. Specifically in relation to lowland raised bogs the area of them in the UK is down by more than 90% in the last 100 years (950km2 down to just 60km2).
2. This has been caused by afforestation (trees growing on them), being drained for farmland, and having the peat extracted for use as a fuel or as compost for gardens/farmers.
67
Name 3 conservation organisations that are helping to balance that conflict between human needs and conservation/preservation of peat bogs in the UK.
1. Wildlife trusts
2. Natural England
3. RSPB (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds)
4. They aim manage and restore peat bogs to maintain biodiversity, provide flood management, for erosion control downstream and for carbon storage.
68
Describe 3 conservation methods to maintain or restore lowland peat bogs.
1. Ditch blocking to raise the water table to the bog surface
2. Removal of seedling trees to reduce water loss through transpiration
3. Controlled grazing to maintain biodiversity – ensures a diverse wetland surface both in terms of structure and species composition – ensuring a wide range of habitats.
4. Methods 1 and 2 make sure the bog remains wet to provide the correct conditions for the bog species and to prevent/reduce decay.
69
Define the term “environmentally sensitive ecosystem”.
1. Ecosystems with low resistance to change.
2. Any change disturbs the ecosystem significantly, changing food webs and potentially leading to the extinction of species and massive change in the ecosystem.
70
State 5 management techniques used in environmentally sensitive ecosystems.
1. Limit the areas tourists can visit as well as limiting tourist numbers
2. Control the movement of livestock and restrict land use.
3. Introduce anti-poaching measures
4. Replanting of forests and native plants
5. Limiting hunting through quotas and seasonal bans
71
Describe the location and nature of the Galapagos Islands.
1. They are about 1000km west of Ecuador in the Pacific ocean
2. They are a collection of volcanic islands (an archipelago) that have never been connected to the mainland.
72
State 4 of the animals present in the Galapagos Islands.
1. Galapagos giant tortoise
2. Flightless cormorant
3. Marine iguana
4. Galapagos rice rat
73
Describe 3 of the plant zones, and state examples of the plants found in the zones, in the Galapagos Islands.
1. Coastal zone – salt-tolerant species e.g. mangrove and saltbush
2. Arid zone – drought tolerant species – e.g. cacti and the carob tree
3. Humid zone – cloud forest – e.g. mosses, liverworts, Scalesia tree
74
Define the terms “flora” and “fauna”.
```
Flora = plant life (often includes fungi and bacteria)
Fauna = animal life
```
75
Describe 5 measures that have been taken to protect the ecosystem of the Galapagos Islands.
1. The Galapagos National Park (set up in 1959)
2. Park rangers
3. Limiting human access to parts of, or whole, islands
4. Controlling migration
5. Controls over movement of introduced animals e.g. pigs
76
Describe the location and nature of Antarctica.
1. A land mass centred over the south pole.
2. It is the coldest, highest, driest, windiest and emptiest continent.
3. It is almost entirely covered by ice sheets that average 2km thick and contain 70% of the world’s freshwater.
4. The average temperature in winter is -30°C.
5. There are only 2 seasons
6. It is surrounded by nutrient-rich, cold oceans.
77
State 5 of the animals present in Antarctica.
1. Weddell seal
2. Emperor penguin
3. Wingless midge
4. Humpback whale
5. Blue whale
78
Describe the nature of the plant and fungal life in Antarctica.
1. Plant and fungal life only exists in the ice-free regions (2% of the continent).
2. It consists mainly of Lichen, moss and algae.
79
Describe 5 impacts human activity has had on Antarctica.
1. Humans have contributed to global warming which is accelerating the melting and cleaving of ice sheets. The ice sheets are now smaller.
2. Hunting and fishing has reduced populations of wild species
3. There has been soil contamination
4. Discharging of waste into the sea has had an impact on many species
5. Tourism means there is more disruption to breeding grounds and more ocean noise.
80
Describe 5 provisions of the Antarctic treaty that help to protect the ecosystem of Antarctica.
1. Scientific cooperation between nations
2. Protection of the Antarctic environment
3. Conservation of plants and animals
4. Designation and management of protected areas
5. Management of tourism
81
Describe the location and nature of Snowdonia National Park.
1. It is about 2000km2 and located in NW Wales.
2. It is the highest mountain range in England and Wales (there are 4 peaks over 1000m including Mount Snowdon).
3. There are lakes, fast flowing rivers, ancient woodland and heath.
82
Describe 3 habitats for birds, and give examples of the birds in each habitat, in Snowdonia National Park.
1. Coastal and estuary – e.g. chough, cormorant, oystercatcher
2. Forest – e.g. pied flycatcher, redstart, wood warblers
3. Moorland and mountain – e.g. osprey, buzzard, sparrowhawks
83
Give an example of a plant adapted to the extreme conditions on Mount Snowdon.
An example could be the Snowdon Lily.
84
State 3 purposes of the park authority set up to conserve the biodiversity of Snowdonia National Park.
1. Conserve and enhance the natural beauty, wildlife and cultural heritage
2. Promote opportunities for understanding and enjoyment of the special qualities of the park
3. Enhance the economic and social well-being of communities within the park
85
Describe how the Dinorwig power station is an example of managing the conflict between human need and the conservation of biodiversity.
1. Located deep inside a mountain in tunnels and caverns, and so it doesn’t affect the natural beauty of Snowdonia but still meets the demand for energy.
86
Describe the location and nature of The Lake District.
1. It is 2292km2 in NW England.
2. It is England’s largest national park and contains England’s highest mountain and deepest lake.
3. There are a variety of habitats including moorland, fell, lakes, dales and ancient woodland.
87
Describe some of the animals found in The Lake District.
1. Water vole
2. Natterjack toad
3. Various bat species
4. Red deer
5. Birds of prey
6. Red squirrel
7. Vendace (a fish)
88
Define the term “arctic-alpine plant community” and give 4 examples of arctic-alpine plants found in The Lake District.
```
Plants that live above the tree line.
Examples could include:
1. Purple saxifrage
2. Alpine cinque foil
3. Dwarf juniper
4. Dwarf willow
```
89
Give an example of a plant found in the lowland regions of The Lake District.
One examples is the Sundew – a carnivorous plant.
90
State 4 purposes of the park authority set up to conserve the biodiversity of the Lake District National Park.
1. To conserve the biodiversity of the region
2. To conserve the natural beauty and cultural heritage of the region
3. To enable access to the region
4. To actively manage the region to achieve the above
91
From all of the conservation and preservation case studies summarise the fundamental reasons for conflict between humans and biodiversity and the associated threats.
Threats to biodiversity
1. Human visitors – tourism and/or migration
2. Human actions – disturbing wildlife, noise, trampling, footpath erosion, waste, oil spills, introducing invasive species, resource collection, livelihoods, killing, hunting, fishing, poaching
3. Invasive species – competition, predation, grazing
4. Land use / Habitat destruction – roads, buildings, farmland
5. Global warming / Climate change
Threats to humans
1. Land use – nature reserves - competition between human use of land and nature’s needs
2. Damage – native species cause injury or death, damage crops
3. Livelihood – a consequence of land use and damage issues, banning of fishing or hunting, banning of resource collection
92
From all of the conservation and preservation case studies summarise the fundamental ways that conflict between humans and biodiversity can be resolved and solutions can be found to maintain biodiversity.
1. Local communities – education, involvement in the solution
2. Restoration of land - footpaths, replanting forests, rewetting bogs
3. Alternative livelihoods
4. Local, national and international regulations – treaties, national parks
5. Government incentives
6. Barriers – electric fences, walls
7. Regulations on tourism – numbers, places, guides
8. Regulations on imports – quarantine, banned goods
9. Removal of invasive species
10. Environmentally sensitive construction projects
