Pompeii/Herculaneum: nature of sources/evidence Flashcards
range of written and AE:
graffiti, ancient writers, official inscriptions, wall paintings, statues, paintings/mosaics, human/animal remains,
info gathered and limitations: Herculaneum
well preserved, from pyroclastic surge, many carbonised organic remains (food, timber, skeletal)
also had glassware, papyrus scrolls, wax tablets, fish net, sanitation evidence
however only small proportion was excavated thus limited info
info gathered and limitations: Pompeii
ash destroyed organic remains, fire, yet still have plaster figures, statues, household shrines, weapons/armour, fountain, temples
ancient writer sources eg:
very limited info, towns weren’t prominent to Romans (Strabo, Seneca, Nero)
Pliny the younger: first hand account of eruption, bravery of P. the elder (biased) also written 25yrs later to Tacitus
Pliny the Elder: ‘Natural history’ covered many topics-> gardens of Pom, fresh produce etc.
why written sources good?
graffiti, election slogans, inscriptions giver sense of “immediacy”-> true insight into the personal life of people –> daily life, politics, architecture, religion, activities
AE: structures
private (tombs, shops, taverns) and public buildings (ampitheatre, public baths, forum) , help understand architecture, however many have been damaged, unrecorded and early interpretations were inaccurate
AE: human remains
reveal sex, age, diet, health, medical problems, cause of death
AE: everyday objects
utensils, food,
related to commerce/trade, economy, wealth, transport
limitations and evaluation of sources:
needs to be careful, previous incomplete documentation has lost valuable info, previous beliefs/conclusions are re-examined now
eruption intro:
dormant Mt. Vesuvius, Romans weren’t concerned, earthquakes were occasional, tremors occurred which dried up wells/springs
first stage of eruption affecting:
Pompeii: “Plinian phase”:
after Pliny the Younger’s account 25yrs later, pumice and ash created eruption column 33km high, like ‘pine tree’
winds blew it onto Pompeii buried 2.5m. NW wind
- people died from asphyxiation ash clogging
second stage of eruption affecting:
“Nuee Ardente phase” Herculaneum (Pompeii little)
pyroclastic surge after ash column collapsed, cloud of hot, toxic gases –> pyroclastic flow: hot avalanche of ash, pumice, gases and carbonised objects (Herc)
- people died from extreme heat-> vapourised
economy: Pompeii
high commercial centre: based from agriculture and slaves, due to fertility of Campanian soil and harbour position –> small scale manufacturing
- most owned small businesses/shops, land around Pom divided into farms
economy: Herc.
less known, quieter and smaller economic activity
trade evidence:
STRABO says Pompeii was trading port for Nuceria and Nola
production–> staple food, bread, wine, grapes, garum, fruits
forum (Pom):
commercial centre, Basilica–> merchants, businessmen, law courts
- traders set up stalls outside
- fish/meat market (Marcellum)
- shops everywhere also
- traded to other cities in Campania/Italian penninsula
import/exports: Pompeii
- wine, olive, wool, garum biggest exports
- import: tableware, wine, olive oil, garum
commerce:
Pom: 1000 coins found,
forum, fresh produce from local farms sold in stalls/shops, Mensa Ponderaria (official weights) in niche
Herc: standardised weights approved by aediles
- taverns, markets, prostitution, inns,
industries:
up to 600 shops
- major: wine, olives, wool, textiles
- smaller industry: garum, perfume, pottery, metal work
- fishing for Herc: big
occupations:
farmers, fishermen, textile, skilled artisans (metalwork, woodwork, sculptor, artists), bakers, prostitutes, actors, gladiators, tradesmen, mule drivers, carpenter, architect, doctors
wine production eg: Pompeii
Pliny the Elder–> stored wine in jars (dolia) buried underground to protect from weather
Vila Rusticae, all vineyards were outside Pom in country estates. 10 rooms and 18 dolia (max 10 000L) found wine press too
bakery production eg: Pompeii
traditionally thought bought flour and made bread at home, however little evidence of ovens at home–> buy from bakery
over 20 bakeries in Pom, and commercial bakeries found in Herc too
Bakery of Modestus found 81 carbonised loaves (Herc?)
millstones located at nearly all bakeries with donkey bones help grind flour
olive production eg: Pompeii
lever and windlass type press found only in high concentration rural areas, (common for grape press) Villa of Mysteries outside Pompeii’s gate (Herc gate) used for cooking, perfume, lighting
Fullonica production eg: Pompeii
wool was the basis for textile industry in Pom
18 fulleries, largest-Fuller’s House of Stephanus
several rooms with clothes press, wash basins, foot basins for treading
larndering, bleaching, recolouring clothes done in workshops
Garum production eg: Pompeii
garum vats used to ferment entrails of fish (mixed with brine/fish roe) found near Pom port facility, smelt terrible
Aulus Ambricus Scaurus ran multiple workshops for garum, 30% of garum containers (urcei) had his name inscribed found in Campania
retail evidence:
carbonised eggs, bread
shop signs, paintings, Thermopolia and Tabernaes (had large dolia holding hot drinks/food) 200 found in Pom, largest near Palaestra
evidence in Herc too
social structure:
Patriarchal societ (men hold power) no patricians, all plebians
merchants, landowners, artisans, slaves
–> Freeborn, Freedmen, slaves, women
population of Pompeii:
approx around 10 000-20 000
freeborn men:
good proportion, could hold legal rights, political office, landowners/businessmen, privileged seats, honorary tombs/staues
freeborn women:
Eumachia: priestess/patron for fullers guild
Julia Felix: wealthy business/land owner
can’t hold formal political office (active role), under legal control of Pater Familias, can own property/businesses, educated, priesthoods, honorary statues/tombs
supported elected candidates–> 14.5% election graffiti were women (Brennan and Lazer)
freedmen:
Vettii Brothers wealth rival Pompeii’s elite
freed after manumission, worked for former master (patron-client), can become influential/wealthy, could vote, own businesses, possibly Augustalis (priest from cult of Emperor)
could NOT hold political office
slaves:
40% of population were slaves, little evidence, sold as commodity, part of familia and worked in workshops, domestic, unmarked tombs most
very few had separate quarters (only HO Menander and HO Centenary)
government: ordo
abided Roman constitution yet self governing towns (PH), council (ordo decurionum) of 80-100 freeborn, wealthy men elected for life -> made laws
election
held in March, organised by powerful families, must people including women were politically aware (MOURITSEN), election propaganda
when elected expected to sponser shows, buildings, statues for public or putting large sum of money to treasury
groups of tradesmen would vote together
politic evidence:
electoral notices/programmata on public buildings/ houses
found along major routes of city (MOURITSEN)
3000 election notices (WILKINSON)
government: magistrate
2 Duuoviri- JUDICIAL magistrates every 5 years conduct census and reviewing ordo (called quinquennales)
2 aediles- PUBLIC BUILDINGS/TEMPLES annually elected by commitium (people assembly)
government: comitium
people’s assembly, all male citizens (inc freedmen) elected magistrates
Herculaneum political life:
similar to Pom, may have quaestor (for finance)
prominent figure Pompeii man
Marcus Holconius Rufus: from prominent Pom family Holconii, duumvir 5 times, patron, helped restore original theatre, voted honorary chair in theatre
had statue on archway of Via dell’Abbondanza
prominent figure Herc man:
Marcus Nonius Balbus:
senator/proconsul of Crete, patron of Herc, built town basilica (law court), had altar made in honour on terrace near Suburban Baths
leisure activities: public entertainment
gladiatorial fights (59 AD, major fight with Nuceria caused ampitheatre spectacles banned for 10 years)
gambling, drinking, cockfighting, brothels, dinner party, dancers, ampitheatre (pantomime, drama)
food and dining: evidence
preserved pani (bread)/food fresco/mosaics, excretement
food:
varied diet of seafood (fish, scallops, cockles), sheep, pork, beef, dates, olives, figs, nuts, eggs, bread
garum: thick, salty sauce found on takeaway foods
dining:
rich: held extravagant banquets in triclinium,
while most working class ate at over 100 taverns, inns and bars. Thermopolia served ‘fast food’ and lack of formal dishware found in houses yet many small grills (BBQ) showed busy lives
inn eg:
Villa Murecine:
600m outside Pompeii on banks of Sarno River, hospitum, catering for businessmen, inn with 5 triclinia (dining rooms) attached (127 wooden tablets of commerical transactions found–> hospitality centre)
clothing: men
toga: heavy wool garment only worn on formal occasions, from equestrian class wore knee length belted tunic –> width of purple stripes showed rank/status (seen in painting Lararium)
wore sandals maybe jewellery
clothing women:
usually wore a stola: long, sleevless tunic
after marriage wore palla: covering the head modestly (bronze statue for Villa Papyri- like greek peplos)
wore jewellery and sandals
health:
Lazer’s study of 300 skills showed were relatively healthy, lifespan comparable to western populations, however teeth shows wear from particles of basalt in millstones/flour,
1 in 5 had Malta fever (consuming contaminated milk products)
surgical instruments were also found in domestic areas
public baths: Pompeii
Forum, Stabian (largest), Ampitheatre, Central baths
public baths in Herc:
forum, suburban baths (so far) baths donated by Marcus Nonius Balbus
public bathing info general:
Seneca generally wrote of selling food, weights, massages and wrestling in thermae –> similar to Pom
went on daily basis, both men and women (separately) except slaves and super poor
public facilities in thermae
had apodyterium (changeroom), figidarium (cold room), tepidarium (warm room), caldarium (hot room)
heated by hypocaust/furnace, wore clogs to protect feet, had large swimming pool (Stabian)
private bath:
Julia Felix: had both private/public baths conerted from large estate after earthquake of 62 AD
main water tower and location:
Castellum aquae
near Vesuvius Gate
water supply route:
aqueduct brings water to Pompeii from mountains–> stored in water tank Castellum aquae –> siphoned into 3 channels (latrines, baths, public fountain), yet also some underground lead pipes brought to private homes,
what were public fountains and their functioning:
nymphaea, 42 in Pompeii street corners
people lived within walking distance to them, some obstructed roadways.
they supplied continuous supply of freshwater (overflow system) ad excess water flushed into the streets and cleaned
sources of water:
rainwater (collected in impluvium - stored in cistern privately)
ground water, river water (Sarno River)
gradient kept for water: and device used
1:100 consistently, castellum plumbeum used to equalise water pressure throughout city
sanitation: toilet features
public toilets in Stabian baths,
general: were communal toilets with no cubicles on benches above flowing channel to remove waste
private toilets found in both Pom/Herc, flushed by hand/connected to household water supply
- drained into cesspits or sewerage system
- next to kitchen for water
sanitation: sewerage/drainage
streets acted as drains-> sewers into Sarno river and Bay of Naples
public buildings:
forum: basicilicas, temples, theatres, ampitheatres, palaestrae,
Pompeii public buildings/location/function: Temples
Pompeii: Temple of Isis (outside forum), Temple of Apollo (left), Temple of Jupiter (in Capitolium north)
Herc: none yet
Pompeii/Herc public buildings location/function: fora
Pomepii: two forums- Triangular/Main centre of political, economic, religious life
Herc: still buried
Pompeii/Herc public buildings location/function: Basilica (Curia)
Pompeii- B: law courts and gov offices, left side
C: also known as admin buildings could’ve housed local gov/civic function (LAURENCE)
Herc: haven’t uncovered yet, built by Marcus Nonius Balbus
Pompeii/Herc public buildings/location/function: Eumachia
donated for public use, serve as fullers guild on right/east
Pompeii/Herc public buildings/location/function: Macellum
meat/fish market sold fresh produce by traders (top right)
Pompeii/Herc public buildings/location/function: theatres
Pom: Large theatre (5000) and Odeon (1300)
Herc: one holding 2000 people, still buried
Pompeii/Herc public buildings/location/function: palaestra
columnaded area for sport, exercise had swimming pool
Pom: 2 of them, large one near ampitheatre
Herc: smaller than Pom, pool had bronze serpent centre piece
Pompeii/Herc public buildings/location/function: ampitheatre
Pom: 20 000 people, awnings can be erected held gladiatorial contests, hunts, battles, music –> attracted country side people to watch
PAINTING: riot in ampitheatre 59AD
Herc: none
private buildings: Type 1
Domus: - 800 in Pom,1/2 rooms, - crowded, most of population lived in Domus (Prof Wallace Hadrill), - House of Menander, - some turned into shops - no running water/toilet
private buildings: Type 2
atrium house:
2-7 roomed, NO peristyle, separate working/living areas, many richly decorated
- House of Vettii
private buildings: Type 3
- insulae/ atrium and peristyle house around central courtyard, inward facing
- may mix with Type 1/2, had workshops around the house
- House of Faun (Pom)
- Insula Oreientalis (Herc)
private buildings: Type 4
villas: - located outside Pom - large country estate/retreats - Villa of Mysteries/ de Papyri multi roomed, very wealthy
religion: temples
none found in Herc yet
Pompeii:
- Captolium (Jupiter, Minerva, Juno)
- Lares,
- Vespasian: imperial cult freedmen were Augustales
influence of greek/egyptian culture: art
Greek:
- themes of myths/gods (Theseus/Minotaur)
- copies of Greek originals
- Alexander Mosaic (House of Faun)–> Hellenistic east
Egyptian:
- floor mosaics, influences
- HO Faun: Nile River and plants/animals
- wall paintings with Egyptian motifs
influence of greek/egyptian culture: architecture
Greek: designed using Greek tradition
- peristyle garden adopted, Greek columns in temples, public, private buildings
- Triangular Forum: complete Doric temple- Greek origin
Egyptian:
- garden art in Julia Felix, represent Delta branch Nile
influence of greek/egyptian culture: religion
Greek gods: Apollo, Hercules, Minerva, Hermes, Dionysus, at both PH
Egypt: Isis worshipped by all classes (Julia Felix- garden shrine)
