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Environmental Science > Pollution - Physical > Flashcards

Pollution - Physical Flashcards

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1
Q

Define density

A

Mass per unit volume.

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2
Q

Define persistence

A

Length of time a pollutant remains in the environment before degrading.

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3
Q

Define toxicity

A

How poisonous a substance is to a living organism.

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4
Q

Define specificity

A

Variations in toxicity to different groups of organisms.

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5
Q

Define reactivity

A

Likelihood to undergo a chemical reaction.

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6
Q

Define adsorption

A

Attachment to the surface of materials.

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7
Q

Define solubility for:
Lipids
Water

A

Lipids - How well a substance dissolves in lipids.

Water - How well a substance dissolves in water.

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8
Q

Define bioaccumulation

A

Amount of a substance in an organism increases.

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9
Q

Define biomagnification

A

Substance becomes more concentrated at higher trophic levels (up the foodchain).

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10
Q

Define synergism

A

Pollutants acting together to have a different, greater effect than on their own.

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11
Q

Define mutagenic action for:
Gonadic
Somatic
Carcinogenic

A

Gonadic - Changes to chemical structure of DNA.

Somatic - Mutation in an egg, sperm, or embryo. Mutations in a body cell.

Carcinogenic - Mutagens that can cause cancer due to uncontrolled cell division.

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12
Q

Define teratogenic action

A

Non-inherited birth abnormalities.

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13
Q

Define mobility

A

Ability of a pollutant to move in the environment.

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14
Q

Define primary pollutant

A

Pollutant released by human activities.

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15
Q

Define secondary pollutant

A

Pollutant produced from chemical reaction with primary pollutants.

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16
Q

What are some factors that affect degradation?

A
  • Temperature: chemical reactions occur rapidly at higher temperatures.
  • Light: Energy to drive chemical reactions.
  • Oxygen: Aerobic decomposition of sewage by bacteria etc.
  • Pollutant interactions
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17
Q

What are some factors impacting dispersal?

A
  • pH: can affect solubility of substances.
  • Wind/water currents: impact direction and how far it is dispersed/diluted.
  • Adsorbent materials: pollutants and naturally toxic metal ions may adsorb onto materials like clay particles, immobilising the pollutant.
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18
Q

What are temperature inversions?

A
  • Warm effluent gases usually have lower density than surrounding air, so rise to disperse.
  • If the layer of air above is warmer then as these gases cool they are less dense and so are not dispersed.
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19
Q

What are some factors that lead to temperature inversions?

A
  • Valleys: trap cooler air below.
  • Low wind: no mixing of air layers.
  • Cloudless skies (at night): IR radiation from ground emitted so cools down.
  • Fog during day: higher albedo reflects sunlight, warming upper layer.
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20
Q

General strategies to control pollution: Critical Pathway Analysis (CPA)

A
  • Predicts movement of pollutants in environment to predict the severity and location of pollution.
  • If pollution is diluted or transported to locations with minimal impact risk then no action needs to be taken.
  • If transported to sensitive locations, control of releases required.
  • Largely used to monitor the dispersal of radioactive waste.
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21
Q

General strategies to control pollution: Critical Group Monitoring (CGM)

A
  • Assesses risk to member of the public (not workers) who are deemed most at risk due to their lifestyle.
  • This is the critical group.
  • Used to monitor exposure and assess risks before health impacts occur. Emissions can be controlled to reduce exposure.
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22
Q

What is the Polluter Pays Principle?

A

Whoever is responsible, pays. Incentive to prevent pollution if costs of payment > benefit from release of pollutant.

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23
Q

What is the Precautionary Principle?

A

Assumes waste released will cause pollution unless research confirms it is unlikely. Ensures that being unaware of potential problems does not exclude responsibility.

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24
Q

What are the direct effects of acid rain on:
Non-living
Living

A

Non-Living:
- Corrodes metals
- Damages water pipes, pylons, powerlines.
- Buildings made of limestone damaged.

Living:
- Acids toxic to living organisms.
- Denature proteins in cell membranes.
- Inhibit enzyme action.

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25
Q

What does acid rain do to organisms?

A
  • Inhibits germination of seeds.
  • Damages fish eggs and gills.
  • Invertebrate exoskeleton dissolves.
  • Lichens sensitive to acidic conditions.
  • Respiratory problems and increase asthma attacks.
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26
Q

What are some indirect effects of acid rain?

A
  • Increased acidity = metal ions become more soluble.
  • Desirable ions leach from soil.
  • Mobilises toxic metals.
  • Toxic metals that leach out can be harmful e.g. aluminium ions linked to Alzheimers disease.
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27
Q

What are some environmental factors impacting severity of acid rain?

A
  • Limestone neutralises acidity.
  • Heavy downpours of acid rain have acute effects.
  • Sudden melting of acidic snow acidifies aquatic habitats.
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28
Q

What are some sources of smoke pollution?

A
  • Incomplete combustion of carbon-based materials.
    E.g. diesel, coal, crop waste, wood fuel.
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29
Q

What are some effects of smoke pollution?

A
  • Can be small enough to penetrate deep into the lungs = asthma, bronchitis, cancer.
  • Blocks stomata on leaves, reducing photosynthesis.
  • Synergistic action with sulfur dioxide.
  • Increased albedo = cooling effect.
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30
Q

How does smog form?

A

Smoke + fog - Moist air cools until water vapour condenses as airborne droplets.

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31
Q

What are the effects of photochemical smog/PANs?

A
  • Toxic at low concentrations.
  • Eye irritation
  • Mutagen
  • Respiratory irritation
  • Toxic to plants
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32
Q

Use trophospheric ozone to explain the meaning of secondary pollutant.

A
  • Primary pollutant nitrogen dioxide reacts with UV.
  • Monatomic O reacts with oxygen to produce ozone.
  • Secondary pollutant as produced from chemical reactions of primary pollutants.
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33
Q

How does tropospheric ozone increase problems caused by acid rain?

A
  • Oxidises sulphur dioxide into sulphur trioxide.
  • SO3 in water produces strong sulfuric acid.
  • More lake acidification.
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34
Q

What are the main methods to reduce air pollution?

A
  • Clean Air Act (1956): Smoke control (smokeless zones), relocate power stations away from cities, increase chimney heights.
  • Kyoto Protocol: Reducing GHGs.
  • Montreal Protocol: Banning use of CFCs to reduce ozone depletion.
  • Landfill Tax (UK): Reduce amount of land used for landfill = less methane.
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35
Q

Control of acid rain: Fuel Desulfurisation

A

1) Hydrogen sulphide removed from natural gas by reacting it with iron particles. Reduce corrosion to appliances/pipelines.
2) Sulfur compounds removed from crude oil during distillation.
3) Removing coal sulfur in pyrites by crushing coal and separating pyrites based on density.

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36
Q

Sources of carbon monoxide

A

Released when carbon-based materials are burned with a shortage of oxygen e.g. incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons in vehicle engines.

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37
Q

Effects of carbon monoxide

A

Binds to haemoglobin and prevents it from carrying oxygen, leading to brain damage and death.

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38
Q

Control of carbon monoxide

A

Exhaust catalytic converters can covert carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide.

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39
Q

Why is oil bad for plants?

A
  • Unable to photosynthesise.
  • May find it difficult to recolonise afterwards as rocks coated in oil.
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40
Q

Why may oil be bad for mussels?

A
  • Asphyxiation
  • Filter feeding can’t happen, they may ingest oil.
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41
Q

Why is oil harmful for fish?

A
  • Oil forms a layer on surface so less oxygen dissolves into water, suffocating them.
  • If they rely on scents to find mates/food, the oil will mask this.
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42
Q

Why is oil harmful for birds?

A
  • Can cause birds to drown if covered.
  • Causes birds feathers to stick together, losing their insulating properties, may die of hypothermia.
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43
Q

Why is oil harmful for sea otters?

A
  • May affect buoyancy/lose insulating properties.
  • Some properties of crude oil toxic.
  • Live long so oil bioaccumulates and biomagnifies.
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44
Q

What are booms? Are there any downsides?

A

+ Surround oil to prevent it from spreading further distance.
- Doesn’t work if waves/currents are too strong.
- Needs deploying soon after oil spill otherwise it’s useless.

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45
Q

What are adsorbent materials? Are there any downsides?

A

+ Helps absorb oil from surface which removes oil from the sea.
- Needs disposal of which can be wasteful.

46
Q

What is steam washing? Are there any downsides?

A

+ Washes oil off beaches so organisms can safely live there.
- Not destroying oil, just removing it.
- Steam jets can kill organisms in beach sediment.

47
Q

What are detergents and dispersants? Are there any downsides?

A

+ Break up of oil, becomes more mobile and disperses.
- It does not remove oil from ocean, only makes it look better.

48
Q

How can oil spills be avoided?

A
  • Better shipping routes, not leaving the mapped out routes. Smaller navigation errors.
  • Better navigation systems.
  • Inert gas systems - prevents oxygen from getting in tanks and exploding.
  • Double hull - inner hull remains intact in an accident.
49
Q

How can oil be weathered?

A
  • Lightest oil will evaporate.
  • Floating oil may disperse.
  • Overtime, bacteria will break down oil to water and CO2.
  • Bioremediation - adding extra bacteria.
50
Q

What are some sources of oil pollution?

A
  • Tanker accidents at sea.
  • Accidental spillages from refineries/pipelines.
  • Vehicle engine oil leaked into environment.
  • Washing out of oil tankers to reduce residue build up.
51
Q

How can oil be recycled?

A

Waste lubricating oil can be collected, filtered, refined, to be used again.

52
Q

What are some effects of pesticides?

A

Direct:
- Can be toxic to non-target species.
- Higher doses can be fatal.
- Lower doses can lower metabolic processes and reduce breeding rates.

Indirect:
- Reduction of food availability.

53
Q

Methods of reducing pesticide pollution: Restriction on use

A

The organochlorine DDT has been banned.

The organophosphate methyl parathion is only used in agriculture.

54
Q

Methods of reducing pesticide pollution: Use of non-persistent pesticides

A

Organophosphate insecticide is non-persistent.

55
Q

Methods of reducing pesticide pollution: Use of more specific pesticides

A

Pyrethroids are less toxic to mammals than organochlorines.

56
Q

Methods of reducing pesticide pollution: Use of systemic pesticides

A

Adsorbed by the crop and translocated within it. Not washed off.

Neonicotinoids.

57
Q

Methods of reducing pesticide pollution: Timing of application

A
  • Spraying on still days results in less spray drift.
  • Spraying at night/when crops aren’t flowering reduces impacts on bees.
  • Newer spraying techniques use smaller droplets to produce a more even coverage, reducing amount required.
58
Q

What’s the difference between eutrophic and oligotrophic?

A

Eutrophic: Lots of nutrients, high primary productivity.

Oligotrophic: Few nutrients, little plant growth.

59
Q

What is eutrophication?

A

1) Excessive nutrients from fertilisers run off from land into rivers/lakes.
2) Cause aquatic plants to grow.
3) Algae blooms occur, preventing sunlight from reaching other plants, depleting the water of oxygen and plants die as no photosynthesis.
4) Dead plants/organisms are decomposed by decomposers and this uses up even more oxygen.
5) No life is possible, fish and others die.
6) Anaerobic organisms flourish.

60
Q

How to control inorganic nutrient pollution from nitrate fertilisers

A
  • Use organic instead.
  • Using crops with lower nitrogen requirements.
  • Plant legumes which fix nitrogen.
  • Reduce ploughing during heavy rain.
  • Avoid dumping waste manure near waterways.
61
Q

What have nitrates in water/diet been linked to?

A

Convert nitrite in gut, converted to carcinogen. Linked to stomach cancer in rats.

62
Q

What happens when nitrates react with haemoglobin?

A

Methemoglobinemia. Reduces oxygen-carrying ability = Blue Baby Syndrome.

63
Q

How to control inorganic nutrient pollution from phosphates?

A
  • Add iron sulphate: forms a precipitation that can be removed.
  • Dredge phosphate-rich sediments.
64
Q

What are some sources of organic pollution?

A

High energy nutrients containing carbon like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids.

Paper mills, sewage effluent, manure, food processing plants, leather tanneries, silage fluid.

65
Q

What are some effects of organic pollution?

A
  • Deoxygenation: Microorganisms feed off these nutrients. Aerobic digestion increases biological oxygen demand (BOD) in water sources.
  • Pathogens: Sewage can contain pathogens which spreads through contaminated food/water, e.g. cholera.
  • Release of inorganic nutrients: Decay of organic matter can release inorganic nutrients, e.g. protein broken down to amino acids to ammonium ions.
66
Q

Pre-treatment of sewage

A
  • Screens remove big debris/material.
  • Grit trap for stones and road grit.
  • Comminutors chop up suspended faecal solids, increasing surface area.

This is all disposed of in landfills or incinerated. Grit can be sterilised and reused.

67
Q

Primary treatment of sewage

A
  • Sludge settles out, needs to be disposed of by landfill, incineration, dispersal in sea.
  • Some is skimmed off surface.

Agricultural use of sludge: Can be used as a fertiliser, heavy metals transfer to the plant and then eaten by us however.

68
Q

Secondary treatment of sewage

A
  • Trickling filter beds: rotating arms spray effluent over large cylindrical tank. Invertebrates can digest remaining organic matter.
  • Aeration to accelerate decomposition (aerobic bacteria break it down).
69
Q

Tertiary treatment of sewage

A
  • Remove phosphates, dissolved nutrients you can’t see. Phosphate removed by solution of iron sulfate.
  • Effluent strained through very fine sieves (micro-strainers).
70
Q

What are some effects of acid mine drainage?

A
  • Reduced pH: outside range of tolerance.
  • Cells inside leaf stomata and plant root hairs sensitive.
  • Inhibits germination of seeds.
  • Damages fish eggs and gills.
  • Mobilises toxic metals.
  • Toxic ions inhibit enzyme action.
  • Invertebrate exoskeletons dissolve.
71
Q

What is the coliform count?

A

Measure of how many e coli there are. Should be 0 in water.

72
Q

What are features of a good indicator species?

A
  • Easy to recognise.
  • Normally present in the area.
  • Reasonably common.
  • Widely distributed.
  • Easy to locate.
  • Varied sensitivity to pollution, some should loathe, some should like.
73
Q

What are some advantages of using biotic indices?

A
  • Monitor current and past pollution.
  • Can help trace source of pollution.
  • Can be very sensitive.
  • Low pollutant concentrations may be detectable if bioaccumulated in organisms.
  • No expensive monitoring equipment required.
74
Q

What are some disadvantages of using biotic indices?

A
  • Can be time consuming to sort samples.
  • Results not always clear to interpret without background biology.
  • Accurate identification may be difficult.
75
Q

Chemical forms of mercury: Liquid mercury

A

Not easily absorbed in the gut but easily absorbed in the lungs as a vapour.

76
Q

Chemical forms of mercury: Inorganic mercury compounds

A

Absorbed through the gut and skin. Not liposoluble, can’t pass across cell membranes so little to none enters brain.

77
Q

Chemical forms of mercury: Organic mercury compounds

A

Easily absorbed in gut or as vapour in lungs. Liposoluble and can pass into brain, across placenta, or into breast milk. Take, for example, Minamata Poisoning.

78
Q

Pathways leading to absorption of lead: Water

A
  • Waterpipes, soldering to join pipes.
  • Water corrodes pipes, lead drank in water.
  • Replace with copper, zinc, tin.
79
Q

Pathways leading to absorption of lead: Industry

A
  • Lead dust from mining.
  • Dust inhaled or absorbed through skin in sweat.
  • Water sprays to allow dust to settle, dust masks to reduce inhalation.
80
Q

Pathways leading to absorption of lead: Petrol

A
  • Lead present in exhaust fumes and dust can be inhaled.
  • Most countries phased out leaded petrol by replacing it with diesel, hydrogen etc.
81
Q

Pathways leading to absorption of lead: Paint

A
  • Used to be in many paints, still used in some.
  • Old flaking paint can be picked up and swallowed by children.
  • Paint removal could produce lead vapours.
  • Hot air paint removal guns use lower temps, less likely to produce lead vapour.
  • Use non lead paint.
82
Q

Pathways leading to absorption of lead: Fishing and Hunting

A
  • Fishing weights, shotgun pellets.
  • Weights discarded, lost, or eaten by swans/ducks etc.
  • Tungsten steel can be used for shotgun pellets and small fishing weights.
83
Q

Iron

A
  • Can be controlled by passing spoil heap drainage water over mesh screens to oxidise and deposit metal on mesh.
  • Not directly toxic but can lead to deoxygenation in water.
  • Can bioaccumulate.
84
Q

Cadmium

A
  • Lung cancer, paralysis, brain damage.
  • Waste needs to be disposed in hazardous waste landfill, may be recycled e.g. batteries.
  • Found in old batteries, certain photovoltaic solar panels.
  • Can bioaccumulate.
85
Q

Tin

A
  • Used as an antifouling paint on boats to stop growth of marine organisms.
  • Can damage marine organisms and enter humans when seafood eaten.
  • Paint now replaced with less toxic metals and paint residues now removed to landfill rather than washed out at sea.
  • Can bioaccumulate.
86
Q

What are some sources of solid waste?

A
  • Mining (spoil heaps).
  • Packaging
  • Electronics waste
  • Clothes
  • Paper
  • Agriculture.
87
Q

What are some issues dealing with domestic waste?

A
  • Large volume produced weekly.
  • Produced by every household rather than a few larger sources.
  • Composition varies seasonally.
  • Mixture of many different types of waste.
88
Q

What are some factors influencing waste treatment?

A
  • Population density
  • Per capita production
  • Type of industry
  • Land availability
  • Available technology for recycling
  • Environmental awareness
  • Legislation
89
Q

What are the pros and cons of landfill?

A

+ Easy.
+ Little to no treatment.
- Often poorly managed.
- Potential valuable resources lost.
- Anaerobic decomposition releases CO2 and methane.

90
Q

What are the pros and cons of landfill?

A

+ Volume of ash less than waste.
+ Heat produced can be used for district heating or electricity generation.
+ No sorting or complicated management.
- Toxic dioxins produced (organic waste + chlorine)
- Fuel used to maintain combustion costly.
- Releases atmospheric pollutans.

91
Q

How could the following problems of spoil heaps be solved: topography (steep slopes of spoil heaps)

A

Landscaping to reduce slope incline.

92
Q

How could the following problems of spoil heaps be solved: Instability and Landslides

A

Compaction, planting vegetation, concrete raft, drainage

93
Q

How could the following problems of spoil heaps be solved: Low pH

A

Liming

94
Q

How could the following problems of spoil heaps be solved: Lack of Nutrients

A

Addition of topsoil or fertilisers, planting legumes.

95
Q

How could the following problems of spoil heaps be solved: Toxic Materials

A

Specialised storage, immobilising heavy metals by raising pH.

96
Q

How could the following problems of spoil heaps be solved: Contamination with Petrochemicals

A

Bioremediation - facilitating conditions to support this.

97
Q

What are some impacts of noise pollution?

A
  • Deafness
  • Stress
  • Irritability
  • Heart disease
  • Headaches
  • Disturbance to breeding birds
  • Livestock can panic and injure themselves
  • Reduce feeding success in owls, dolphins etc
98
Q

How do aircraft design impact surroundings and how can this be controlled?

A
  • Cowling-thrust exhaust noisy.
  • Turbulence flaps up = drag = noisy.
  • Engine thrust.
  • Reverse thrust (landing) to stop planes.
  • High-by-pass-ratio engines - 2nd cowling to ‘bypass’ air = smoothens exhaust.
  • Acoustic liners: inside outer cowling and inner to make it quieter.
  • Have longer runways so not as much braking needed.
  • Fairing on undercarriage decreases turbulence around wheels (aerodynamics).
99
Q

How do aircraft and airport operations impact surroundings and how is this controlled?

A
  • Location (near populated areas).
  • Taxi areas.
  • Engine test areas.
  • Mainly take off and landing.
  • Single runway uses reverse thrusters to get off it quickly.
  • Put in places with less people so less affected.
  • Put away from residential areas.
100
Q

How does industry impact surroundings and how is this controlled?

A
  • Air compressors.
  • Mine blasting.
  • Pile driving.
  • Marine seismic surveys.
  • Sound absoring in room and around equipment.
  • Workers ear protection.
  • Machinery placed on acoustic mat.
  • Use of alternative processes.H
101
Q

What is ionsing radiation?

A
  • Energy or particles emitted from a source, which when absorbed produces ions.
102
Q

What are the risk:benefit of nuclear reactors?

A

Used to make electricity, propel ships, power stations.
+ Clean source of power, GHG production decreased, high energy density.
- Release of radioactive waste.

103
Q

What is the risk:benefit of radiotherapy cancer treatment?

A

Kills cells that have mutations using gamma radiation.
+ Increases survival from cancer.
- Other tissues damaged may lead to long term health risks.

104
Q

What is the risk:benefit of medical and scientific research?

A

Radio-labelling: Tracing movement of molecules in body using beta/gamma radiation.
+ Discovery of metabolic processes and how the body works.
- Exposure for workers in these areas.

105
Q

What is the risk:benefit of sterilisation techniques using gamma rays?

A

Kills microorganisms that may infect wounds.
+ Reduces risk of infection.
- Staff are exposed to radiation.

106
Q

What are some difficulties determining a risk:benefit analysis?

A
  • Not always aware of risks.
  • Difference in location with those who benefit and those at risk.
  • Relation to other risks not using radiation e.g. X-rays are a must for diagnostic surgery.
107
Q

What is the risk:benefit of plant breeding programmes?

A

Artificially inducing mutations in plant species using X-rays and gamma rays.
+ Development of new varieties with desirable characteristics.
- Exposure of workers.

108
Q

Effects of ionising radiation: Formation of free radicals

A
  • Highly reactive with unpaired electrons.
  • Cause biologically damaging reactions.
  • Produce more stable molecules that cause damage within the cell.
109
Q

Effects of ionising radiation: Damage to the nucleus of the cell

A
  • Cells that are genetically active are most impacted as they divide rapidly e.g. skin.
  • Damage to egg and sperm cell may impact future babies.
110
Q

Methods to reduce exposure of radiation: Closed Sources

A
  • Enclosing radioactive sources so doesn’t come into direct contact with workers.
  • Protective clothing.
111
Q

Methods to reduce exposure of radiation: Absorbing Materials

A
  • Materials used to act as barriers between radiation sources and workers.
  • e.g. lead for gamma radiation.
112
Q
A

Environmental Science (14 decks)

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