political parties - (labour and conservative)

Question 1

What is a political party?

Answer 1

A political party is an organisation of people with similar political values, views, goals and policies that it seeks to convert into political action by becoming a government or influencing the government in power. It may pursue it’s goals by gaining public support, identifying suitable leaders, selecting candidates for office and competing at elections

Question 2

main features of political parties in the uk

Answer 2

• members of parties share similar political values and views.
• parties seek to secure the election of their candidates at various levels: national, regional and local
• they are an organisation that develops policy and recruits candidates and elects leaders

Question 3

typical variations in the features of political parties

Answer 3

• some are mass memberships parties with many adherents (UK labour party); others have a small leadership group who seek supporters rather than members (the main US parties)
• some parties may be highly organised with a formal permanent organisation (German Christian Democrats) while others have a loose, less permanent organisation (US parties that only organise fully during election)
• Some parties may have a very narrow range of values and views and are intensely united around those views (left-wing socialist parties); others have a very broad range of views and values, and so may be divided into factions (UK conservative party)
• some parties are very focused in gaining power (main parties in the uk and us) while others recognise they will not gain power but seek merely to influence the political system (green parties)

Question 4

What is a manifesto?

Answer 4

A manifesto is a written document that contains a list of promises/policies that is put together by a political party pre-election.

Question 5

What is a electoral mandate / mandate ?

Answer 5

The right to implement its stated policies : the right of the party that has been elected to pursue its promises, pledges and policies that were set out by their manifesto without having to go back to votes to seek further approval (however, it does not have to implement all of its promises)

Question 6

What is the Salisbury Doctrine?

Answer 6

This was developed by a conservative PM, lord Salisbury in the late 19th century. It developed in the 1940’s as constitutional convention to prevent the unelected house of lords of opposing the will of the elected government.

Question 7

What is the franchise?

Answer 7

the right to vote

Question 8

Does the concept of the mandate make sense? Yes

list points

Answer 8

• The franchise is widely held and there is a high level of individual voter registration.
• The first past the post electoral system usually results in a single party government, so it follows that the victors should have the right to implement their stated policies.
• The doctrine assumes the electors have full knowledge of the manifestos and so can make a rational judgment. Each party’s manifestos is readily available to voters ahead of polling day, both in print and online.
• Digested summaries of the main policies of each party are disseminated by the mainstream media. Televised leaders debates at the last two general elections have seen the leaders at the parties questioned on their main policies
• The mandate strengthens government, in that the winning party gains legitimacy for its policies.
• All the MPs from the winning party who are elected are ‘bound in’ by the mandate, as most voters vote for a party manifesto rather than an individual. Party leaders can therefore maintain discipline among members by emphasising to them that they were elected on the same mandate.
• If a government strays from its electoral mandate, parliament and assemblies can feel justified in challenging the government.

Question 9

what is the first past the post electoral system?

Answer 9

FPTP is used in the UK General Election as well as English local elections. Each seat elects one member based on a plurality of the votes (i.e. the candidate with the most votes) Even if the winning margin is simply by one vote, that candidate still wins.

Question 10

Does the concept of an electoral mandate make sense? No.

list points

Answer 10

• The low turnout at recent general elections means that the winning party can hardly claim to have secured a convincing mandate.
• It depends upon a single party wining an election outright coalition governments such as that seen in the wake of the 2010 general election mean that the actual content of the mandate is unclear; two or more parties must agree a compromise programme for which no single party has a mandate.
• Most voters pay little attention to party manifestos, whether in full or digested form. Voting behaviour is more about long-term factors or personalities than it is about policy detail.
• The concept of the mandate is flawed because it is impossible for voters to cast a ballot for or against a given party on the basis of a single policy
• It is clear that voters who have opted for one party do not necessarily agree with all its manifesto commitments. Yet the mandate does assume the electorate has given its consent to the whole of the manifesto.
• Some manifesto commitments may be rather vague and open to interpretation. This makes calling the government to account on the basis of its manifesto difficult and open to dispute.

Question 11

list functions of political parties

Answer 11

1 - making policy
2 - representation
3 - selecting candidates
4 - identifying leaders
5 - organising elections
6 - political education
7 - reinforcing consent

Question 12

Define what is policy

Answer 12

Policy is a set of principles to guide actions in order to achieve a goal/guide decisions that could help the community. (policies defer depending on the political ideology of the party)

Question 13

Describe the role of making policy in the functions of political parties

Answer 13

policy making function of the ruling party is same as the policy making function of the government. It involves political leaders and civil servants, advisory units and committees and private advisors. Backbench Mps and peers local activists and ordinary members have some say through conferences and committees but their role remains very much in the background. Most policy is made by ministers and their advisors.

The policy- formulating function is sometimes known as aggregation which involves identifying demands and converting these into programmes of action that are consistent and compatible.

Question 14

What is aggregation?

Answer 14

Aggregation involves identifying a wide range of demands made on the political system from party membership, from the mass individuals in society and other groups and then convert these demands into action. political demands of groups and individuals can influence policy making

Question 15

what is partisan dealignment?

Answer 15

Partisan dealignment is a process whereby individuals become less partisan in terms of their support for a political party.

Question 16

what is class dealignment?

Answer 16

class dealignment describes how the social classes are voting in far fewer numbers for the political party they used to traditionally vote for.

Question 17

what is populism?

Answer 17

populism refers to political activities/movement or ideas that claim to promote the interests and opinions of ordinary people. new parties have emerged to appeal to the ordinary people or those who feel ignored by parties.

Question 18

list the main ways that political parties can be funded

Answer 18

• raise donations from wealthy donors or organisations / companies
• campaigning / fundraising / conferences
• gain some funding from the electoral commission
• subscriptions to political parties - memberships from subscriptions
• some individuals may sell finance to put into the party
• trade unions fund parties e.g. the labour party

Question 19

What act regulated funded of political parties in the UK

Answer 19

The funding of parties was regulated in 2000 by the political parties, elections and referendums Act (PPERA).

Question 20

What regulations and stipulations did the political parties, election and referendums act (PPERA) make

Answer 20

• people not on the UK electoral roll could no longer make donations (thus reducing foreign influence)
• limits were placed on how much could be spent on parliamentary elections (£30,000 per constituency)
• Donations over £5000 have to be declared
• Donations over £7,500 were to be placed on an electoral register.

Question 21

Why is party funding controversial?

Answer 21

Funding is hugely biased towards the two biggest parties. smaller parties are also disadvantaged by the UK electoral system at general elections and therefore the funding shortfall represents a double problem.

Question 22

state why the question of party funding can lead to a number of issues which are even more serious and state the controversies

Answer 22

• the major parties are put at a huge advantage and conversely, small parties are put at a great disadvantage, particularly when it comes to fighting elections. current party funding therefore promotes political inequality.
• funding by large donors represents a hidden and unaccountable form of political influence. parties are not allowed to change specific policies or propose legislation as a direct result of donations, but donors must expect some kind of political return for their investment. This might be true of trade unions and the labour party and business interests and the conservatives
• Aspects of funding may well verge on being corrupt. It is suspected that some donors may expect to receive an honour from party leaders such as a peerage or knighthood in return for their generosity. This is sometimes known as ‘cash for honours’
• The steady decline of party membership has meant that parties are even more reliant upon donors, which further opens up the possibility of corruption and the purchasing of political influence.

Question 23

What does the electoral commission do?

Answer 23

the electoral commission monitors the income of political parties in the uk.

Question 24

State examples of the electoral commission monitoring reported examples of large donations to parties:

Answer 24

• between 2015-2017 the conservative party received £11.3 million from prominent figures and the companies in the financial sector
• in the same period, the conservatives received £3.6 million from property companies
• one individual, hedge fund proprietor angus fraser donated £1, 137,400 to the conservative party during this period
• the unite trade union gave £657,702 to the labour party early in 2017
• at the same time UNISON, the public service union donated £376,242 to labour

Question 25

are individual donations considered undemocratic?

Answer 25

individual donations from organisations or unions are not see as undemocratic forms of influence but often carry some other kind of controversy. similarly, trade unions donations to labour have been criticised on the grounds that members of the unions are not given a clear enough choice as to whether their subscriptions should be spent in that way. It is also said that labour is unduly influenced by union leaders because of so much of their income comes from them

Question 26

state alternative ideas for funding structures and restrictions of party funding:

Answer 26

1 - impose restrictions on the size of individual donations to parties. This is broadly the system used in the US (through donors can grant funds to thousands of individual candidates). To be effective, the cap would have to be relatively low.
2 - impose tight restrictions on how much parties are allowed to spend. This would make large-scale fundraising futile.
3 - restrict donations to individuals i.e. outlaw donations from businesses, pressure groups and trade unions.
4 - Replace all funding with state grants for parties, paid out of general taxation.

Question 27

What is the case for funding political parties through taxation?

Answer 27

Philips report 2007 stated that there is a strong case for funding political parties to be funded through taxation. The case has become particularly pressing because of the vast discrepancy in the amount of money different parties received, as well as a number of financial scandals which undermined public faith in parliamentary democracy. It concluded the one way forward might be greater state funding for uk political parties, perhaps some form of ‘pence per state’ or ‘pence per member’ funding formula.

Although the case in favour of the comprehensive funding is widely contested there is already some state funding in the uk from the electoral commission

Question 28

What type of funding does the electoral commission give to political parties.

Answer 28

the electoral commission gives funding to the main parties. These are called policy development grants (available to any party that has two or more sitting MPs) and can be used to hire advisors on policy. Over £2 million is available for this purpose. Parties also receive subsidies in respect of TV broadcasts and help with postage costs during election campaigns. In addition, there is also short money which is distributed to all opposition parties to fund their parliamentary work.

Question 29

What is short money?

Answer 29

Short money is the money given to opposition parties by the house of commons to help conduct their affairs in parliament/parliamentary work and give financial assistance.
idea created from education secretary short (1968-1970)

Question 30

Is short money heavily biased?

Answer 30

short money is heavily biased towards the large parties because it depends upon how many seats parties have won at previous elections. Thus, since 2015 the labour party receives £6.7 million in short money per annum, while the next biggest grant goes to the SNP with £1.2 million. Interestingly, UKIP refused over a half a million pounds in short money after winning one seat in 2015. The party suggested it was corrupt and designed to favour established parties.

Question 31

What is cranborne money?

Answer 31

Cranborne money is money given to opposition parties given by the house of lords to help them with costs and help pay the necessary money to allow them to carry out their parliamentary work and pay for administrative costs

Question 32

What is the debate about state financing in relation to party funding

Answer 32

Much of the debate about party funding relates to state financing. However, although several political parties favour this, there is little public appetite for it. Taxpayers are naturally reluctant to see their taxes being used to finance parties at a time when attitudes to parties are at a low ebb (dissatisfied with politics and the public). However, state funding remains the only solution that could create more equality in the system. As long as funding is determined by market forces it is likely that the large parties will be placed at a significant advantage. The other policy is to eliminate the abuses in the system. This involves full transparency, limits on how much business and union donors can give and a breaking of any link between donations and the granting of honours.

Question 33

Should the Uk parties receive state funding? arguments for:

Answer 33

• it will end the opportunities for the corrupt use of donations e.g. favours for honours
• it will end the possibilities of ‘hidden’ forms of influence through funding
• it will reduce the huge financial advantage that large parties enjoy and give smaller parties the opportunity to make progress
• It will improve democracy by ensuring the wider participation from groups that have no ready source of funds

Question 34

should the uk parties receive state funding? arguments against:

Answer 34

• taxpayers may object to funding what can be considered to be ‘private’ organisations.
• it will be difficult to know how to distributive funding. should it be on the basis of past performance (in which case large parties will retain their advantage) or on the basis of future aspirations
• parties may lose some of their independence and will see themselves as organs of the state (extension of the state)
• state funding may lead to excessive state regulation of parties
• philosophically state funding might also suggest that political parties were ‘servants of the state’ potentially limiting their independence.
• the funding of extremist parties such as the BNP would be extremely contentious

Question 35

Will state funding arrive in the uk in the future?

Answer 35

It seems unlikely that state funding will arrive in the uk in the near future. Far more likely that the idea of individual donations should be limited. Greater transparency has been largely been achieved but the problem of ‘cash for honours’ or the suspicion that large organisations can gain a political advantage through donation persists.
Statutory regulation and public funds aside, it is clear that the main uk political parties still receive considerable sums in the forms of donations and that wealthy individual bankers have not been put off by the prospect of losing their anonymity. Action may well centre on a deal between the conservatives and labour. labour might sacrifice some of its trade union funding in return for caps on business donations and wealthy individuals bankrolling the conservatives. The liberal democrats with their unwavering support for state funding will have to remain on the side lines for the time being

Question 36

What is the political spectrum?

Answer 36

The political spectrum is a device by which different stand-points can be mapped across an axes of a way of demonstrating their ideological position in the relation to one and the other.

Question 37

What is the right-wing?

Answer 37

The right-wing are a political belief that derive from liberal and conservatives ideology. The liberal focus emphasises limiting excessive government, keeping tax low and protecting the individual liberty. The right emphasises the conservative values such as law and order, a strong defence and the importance of national sovereignty.

Question 38

What is the left-wing?

Answer 38

left-wing emphasises the importance of creating a fair and equal society through positive state intervention. This includes higher taxes on the wealthy, extensive welfare provision and greater state influence in the economy. It is socially progressive and favours an internationalist approach to global problems

Left-wing refers to a type of political position where people who hold these views support social equality whilst opposing forms of social hierarchy and inequality. They are assumed to be concerned about the disadvantaged in society, seeking to reduce or abolish any unjustified inequalities.

Question 39

How are political ideology discussed in terms of the political spectrum and what do these ideologies believe in?

Answer 39

Political ideology in the Uk has generally been discussed in terms of the simple left-right political spectrum that emerged in revolutionary France at the end of the 18th century.

• In modern usage, those on the extreme left on the political spectrum are said to favour some form of communal existence, with all property being held collectively as opposed to individually, while moderate left-wingers accept capitalism but favour greater government intervention in the economy and a more comprehensive welfare state.
• In contrast, those on the right are said to favour private enterprise over state provision, resulting in a process that the former conservative prime minister Margaret thatcher describes as ‘rolling back the frontiers of the state’

Question 40

what do those on the political left on the political spectrum believe?

Answer 40

In modern usage, those on the extreme left on the political spectrum are said to favour some form of communal existence, with all property being held collectively as opposed to individually, while moderate left-wingers accept capitalism but favour greater government intervention in the economy and a more comprehensive welfare state.

Question 41

what do those on the political right on the political spectrum believe?

Answer 41

In contrast, those on the right are said to favour private enterprise over state provision, resulting in a process that the former conservative prime minister Margaret thatcher describes as ‘rolling back the frontiers of the state’

Question 42

what do all main British parties have that each comprises of members of a party having various different political shades

Answer 42

broad churches

Question 43

state left wing political ideas (more socialist ideas)

Answer 43

• hold a positive view of the state and a collectivist view of society
• believe the government should reduce inequality and encourage social cohesion by providing an extensive welfare state
• the wealthier in society should pay a higher share of the cost of this through redistributive taxation (equal wealth within society). The government should also pay a major role in the economy through the nationalisation of key industries.
• left-wing politicians have generally enjoyed class relations with the trade union movement since the unions also represent the economic interests of the working class.
• socially, the left embraces multiculturalism. It is also socially libertarian and so supports giving alternative lifestyles equal status with more traditional areas.

Question 44

state right wing political ideas (more individualistic ideas)

Answer 44

• The right wing of British politics focuses more on the importance of giving the individual as much control over their own life as possible.
• Right-wing politicians reject left-wing attempts of greater equality and believe that the free market operates best when there is little government intervention as possible
• governments should aim to keep taxation as low as possible and trade union influence needs to be limited in operation of the market
• companies operate most efficiently when there is competition so nationalised firms are best privatised.
• Although economically libertarian, the right-wing is socially conservative and so emphasises the importance of a shared national identity and encourages traditional lifestyles.

Question 45

What is consensus politics?

Answer 45

consensus politics is a time during politics where there is consensus (agreement) / little fundamental ideological differences between the parties.

(they have great general agreement over ideas and policies)

Consensus politics is where there is a general agreement on an issue such as the economy between the major political parties. This can lead to there being more differences in political beliefs WITHIN political parties as there are BETWEEN political parties.

Question 46

what is adversary politics?

Answer 46

adversary politics is where there is considerable conflict and disagreement over basic principles and ideology (deep divisions between and within parties)

Adversary politics is when there is a deep and broad disagreement between the main political parties. It is the opposite of consensus politics.

Question 47

name times in consensus politics

Answer 47

1950s-1970s - labour government under clement atlee had undertaken a major programme of reform in the uk. the welfare state was created, including the creation of the NHS.

1997 - 2015 - post-thatcher consensus. Tony Blair and his leadership group dominant after 1997.

Question 48

name times in adversary politics

Answer 48

1979-90s - significant period of adversary politics occurred in the 1980s. This was during Margaret Thatcher’s premiership which moved the conservative party to the ‘new right’.

Question 49

What did the labour government under clement atlee do?

Answer 49

the labour government under clement atlee had undertaken a major programme of reform in the UK. the welfare was created, including the creation of the NHS. Major industries such as a coal, rail and steel were nationalised a comprehensive system of old-age pensions was initiated the provision of subsided housing was expanded and a wide range of new local authority services was introduced. This presented a problem for the conservative party when it come to power in 1951 and remained there until 1964 under four PMs.

Question 50

under tony Blair premiership, there was general political agreement over key political issues
state these issues:

Answer 50

• the maintenance of strong well funded welfare state (investing, funding)
• constitutional reforms to make the uk more democratic and power to be centralised e.g. Scottish, welsh and northern Ireland assembly
• improved protection of human rights and social equally among groups
• commitment to a reduction in poverty
• public investment in services to promote economic growth
• promotion of individualism by encouraging home ownership and low taxation,

Question 51

Why was there adversary politics under Margaret Thatcher?

Answer 51

Adversary politics occurred during the 1980s, this was because the conservative party under Margaret thatcher premiership moved to a position known as ‘new right’ politics. Meanwhile, the labour party under the leadership of Michael foot moved to the left. political conflict became deep and intense. The two parties had very different visions of which direction the Uk should be moving in.

Question 52

state new right conservative policies during

1979-1990

Answer 52

• publicly owned industries were privatised by being sold to private investors. These included gas, cool, electricity, steel, water and telecommunications.
• A number of legal restrictions were placed on the activities of trade unions
• Tenants in council homes were encouraged to buy their properties at discounted prices and on a low mortgage rates. This became a legal right
• Legal regulations on the financial system were removed
• Rates of income tax for high income groups and tax on businesses were significantly reduced.

Question 53

state left wing labour policies during 1979-1990

Answer 53

• Labour opposed the privatization and sought to nationalise more industries including, possibly, the banks
• Labour opposed the legal restrictions placed on the activities of trade unions and proposed additional worker protection measures
• Labour opposed the ‘right to buy’ policy and proposed increased local authority house building and controls on private rents
• Labour opposed that legal regulations of the financial system were removed and even suggested big banks might be nationalised
• Labour proposed a steeply progressive tax system to redistribute real income from rich to poor. A wealth tax was also proposed

Question 54

What is one-nation conservatism?

Answer 54

one-nation conservatism is an approach created by Benjamin Disraeli which believes that the rich in society have an obligation to support the poor

Question 55

What is paternalism?

Answer 55

paternalism is an approach to running the country in which members of the elite seek to govern in the best interests of the people

Question 56

What is organic society?

Answer 56

Organic society is the idea that society operates like an organism or living entity. People are tied together by the common sense of being members of an interdependent society implying those who are well off do have a social responsibility to care for the poorer sections of society

Question 57

What is pragmatism?

Answer 57

pragmatism is a flexible approach to society and politics, incorporating a sense of understanding of what is best for the people, what is acceptable to them and what will preserve a stable society on the basis of what works

• they are not bound by ideological ideas

Question 58

what is the term new right?

Answer 58

The new right was used to describe a group of political values and ideas largely emerging in the US in the 1970s and 80s which were adopted by many conservatives throughout the developed world.

Question 59

What was the new right a reaction against?

Answer 59

the new right was a reaction against socialist ideas gaining ground in Europe, Asia and south America and against the traditional conservative values that were seen too weak to deal with contemporary economic and social policies.
it was associated in the us with Ronald Reagan and in the uk with Margaret thatcher

Question 60

What is the new right a combination of?

Answer 60

the new right is a combination of neo-liberalism and neo-conservatism. Most, but not all conservatives of the NR subscribed to both sets of ideas, through often they leaned towards one more than the other.

Question 61

What are supporters of thatcher and her approach of Thatcherism and the new right called?

Answer 61

Thatcherites - who favour the approaches of thatcher and favours the importance of the individuals over the needs of society as a whole

Question 62

What did the advent of Thatcherism mark the death of?

Answer 62

The advent of Thatcherism marked the death of the post-war consensus and the rise of more adversarial politics. Thatcher referred to those who were not prepared to sign up to this agenda, in many cases the old one-nation Tories as ‘wets’

Question 63

state policies thatcher offered through her radical agenda of ‘thatcherism’

Answer 63

• deregulation in the field of business
• privatisation of publicly-owned industries
• statutory limits on the power of trade unions
• a smaller state (‘rolling back the frontiers of the state’ and more limited state intervention in the economy
• a greater emphasis on national sovereignty
• more limited state welfare provision

Question 64

State the difference between one-nation conservatism and Thatcherism

Answer 64

one nation conservatism advocates for a more unified society and every person in society having the social obligation to help the poorer sections of society - very pragmatic, paternalistic and asks for a mixed economy
whereas Thatcherism advocates for a more individualistic society and is very ideological promoting radical change and less reliance on the state but more emphasis on individualism - free market economy

Question 65

How did the conservative party emerge?

Answer 65

The conservative party (CP) emerged from the Tory party in the 1830s, with many dating its birth to Robert Peel’s Tamworth manifesto in 1834. Conservatism in the Uk has its origins in the conflict that raged during the 17th century over the role and authority of the monarchy. Those who supported royal authority (as opposed to parliament) were known as royalists but eventually became known as ‘Tories’. During the (17th, it became clear that the supporters of parliament and democracy in general (mostly known as ‘whigs’) were gaining the upper hand over royalists. However, a new conflict began to emerge as the industrial revolution gathered pace in the middle of the 19th century.

Question 66

Explain the origins of conservatism

Answer 66

Conservatism in the Uk has its origins in the conflict that raged during the 17th century over the role and authority of the monarchy. Those who supported royal authority (as opposed to parliament) were known as royalists but eventually became known as ‘Tories’. During the (17th, it became clear that the supporters of parliament and democracy in general (mostly known as ‘whigs’) were gaining the upper hand over royalists. However, a new conflict began to emerge as the industrial revolution gathered pace in the middle of the 19th century.

Question 67

What growth threatened the traditional authority of the aristocracy and the landed gentry?

Answer 67

industrialisation and the growth of international markets allowed the capitalist middle class to grow in size and influence. Their rise challenged the traditional authority of the aristocracy and the landed gentry (land owners who owned great estates and products of agriculture).

Question 68

Who did the whigs represent and who did the Tories represent?

Answer 68

The middle class were largely represented by the whigs and the landed gentry by the Tories.

Question 69

Why did the Tories be described as the conservatives?

Answer 69

They were described as conservatives because they resisted the new political structures that were growing up and wished to ‘conserve’ the dominant position of the upper classes and traditional authority they represented.

Question 70

Who is the first conservative prime minister?

Answer 70

The first conservative prime minister is generally acknowledged as sir Robert peel (prime minister 1834-35 and 1841-46). He and Benjamin Disraeli (pm 1868 and 1874-80) formed the party basing it on traditional conservative ideas.

Question 71

Who did sir robert peel form the conservative party with and what was their party’s main objectives?

Answer 71

Sir Robert peel and Benjamin Disraeli formed the conservative party together basing it on traditional conservative values. The party’s main objectives were to prevent the country from falling too far into inequality, to preserve the unity of the kingdom and to preserve order in society. It was a pragmatic party, which adopted any policies it believed would benefit the whole nation.

Question 72

What are the two traditions linked to the conservative party that can make it easy to understand the political background of the party?

Answer 72

1. The first is often known as ‘traditional conservatism’ and it dates back from the origins of the party in the 19th century. It is sometimes described as ‘one nation conservatism’
2. The other tradition emerged in the 1980s. It is usually given one of two names - ‘New right conservatism’ or ‘Thatcherism’ after it main protagonist, Margaret Thatcher (1979-90)

Question 73

Where does traditional conservatism originate from?

Answer 73

Traditional conservatism originated in the late part of the 19th century as a reaction against the newly emerging liberal ideas that were the inspiration behind the revolutions in North America and in France.

Question 74

How does Thomas Hobbe reflect the conservative fear of destabilizing social change and innovation?

Answer 74

The conservative fear of destabilizing social change and innovation was reflected in Thomas Hobbes class text ‘Leviathan’ (1651) as Hobbes had lived through a civil war and had witnessed a government breaking down. His view of human nature was very negative and so he argued that if here was not a strong government to control its citizens and resist dangerous innovation then anarchy would ensue, ensuring that property would not be safe and violence would be endemic which reflects how the conservatives have adopted a pessimistic and negative view of human nature

Question 75

contrast the conservative, liberal and socialist views on human nature

Answer 75

Conservatives tend to adopt a very pessimistic view on human nature. Conservatives stress the competitive nature of people. They see humankind as liable to fall into disorder that humans can be easily led to follow false ideas and the potential for ‘mob rule’. Despite, this conservatives believe we crave order and security and in fact argue we prefer security to individual freedom.

liberals see humans as naturally sympathetic to each other, caring of each’s needs and freedom

socialists see humankind as naturally sociable and cooperative.

Question 76

Which new principles where in conflict with traditional conservative principles?

Answer 76

The dynamic new egalitarian principles of the french revolution based on ‘liberty, fraternity, equality’ were in total conflict with traditional conservative principles. Horrified by the enthusiasm which some Britons were showing for the sudden upheaval of the French revolution, the whig MP Edmund Burke (sometimes known as the father of conservatism), wrote ‘reflections on the revolution in france in which he warned about the consequences of rapid change.

Question 77

who is sometimes known as the father of conservatism and wrote reflections on the revolution in France?

Answer 77

Edmund Burke whig MP (1729-97)

Question 78

Why was Edmund Burke against the abandonment of traditional forms of authority and revolution?

Answer 78

The whig MP Edmund Burke (sometimes known as the father of conservatism), wrote ‘reflections on the revolution in France in which he warned about the consequences of rapid change. For him, the greatest crime of the French revolutionaries was to abandon traditional forms of authority that had stood the test of time. However, ‘right’ such ideas might be, they were opposed because they had disturbed society so seriously and flew in the face of humankind’s most basic desire for order and security. For Burke, ‘no generation should ever be so rash as to consider itself superior to its predecessors’. The idealistic desire change the world was considered as dangerous and the safest course was always to approach problems pragmatically, respecting authority and tradition.

Question 79

What type of ideas has lead the conservatives to support institutions and traditions

Answer 79

ideas like Thomas Hobbes and Edmund Burke has lead the conservatives to support institutions as the monarchy, the church of England, the union of Britain and the great traditions of the political system in general. It also leads to a belief in the enduring quality of what are known as ‘British values’. For Burke, ‘Good order is the foundation of all good things’. He suggested that the new ideas of liberty, equality and democracy were creating a disordered society and that since him, conservatives have always been suspicious of new ideas that threaten the existing order. Therefore, the conservatives have a preference for the preservation of tradition which is related closely to a desire for public order.

Question 80

What traditional values do the conservative hold preference to?

Answer 80

Traditional institutions such as the monarchy, established church and political institutions

Also values such as the preservation of marriage, the importance of the nuclear family, religion and established morality.

The very fact that values and institutions have survived is a testament of the quality of conservatives. They carry the accumulated wisdom of the past and should therefore be respected. Burke also praised traditions for their ability to provide continuity between the past and the present - a ‘partnership between those who are living, those who are dead and those who are born’
Therefore, conservatives have consistently opposed the rise of any new ideology and by the 19th century Toryism was the party of pragmatism, property, authoritarianism, tradition and stability.

Question 81

Why did Benjamin Disraeli believe conservatism should unite the nation and that traditional conservatism lacked the ability to inspire people?

Answer 81

Benjamin believed traditional conservatism lacked the necessary dynamic to inspire men as in his ‘young England’ novels. Disraeli as an ambitious tory backbencher, argued that conservatism must unite the nation in a collective reverence for those traditions and institutions that had made Britain great.

Question 82

How did Disraeli see society as?

Answer 82

Disraeli argued that conservatism must unite the nation in a collective reverence for those traditions and institutions that had made Britain great. Disraeli saw society as an organic body in which stability and prosperity could only be achieved through all classes and individuals appreciating their debt to each other and not putting their selfish interests above the wellbeing of the community. He recognised that as a result of the industrial revolution and the growth of capitalism, a great divide was emerging between the middle classes, who were becoming more increasingly prosperous and the working classes, who were falling further behind. He warned against Britain becoming ‘Two Nations’: ‘The rich and the poor’ which is why the inclusive conservatism he argued for became known as ‘one-nation conservatism’.

Question 83

Why were Disraeli’s one nation sentiments important and how did they have an influence ?

Answer 83

Disraeli’s ‘one nation’ sentiments were important in enabling the conservatives to reach out and gain the support of the working class, As PM, he supported quite extensive social reforms that would reduce conflict and opposed measures that created too much inequality. This reflects a paternalist conservatism which favoured pluralism and social inclusion and held that, while authority should be centralised the state should benevolent and care for the neediest. Associated with the idea of ‘one nation’ is the notion of an organic society suggesting that people are tied together by a common sense of being members of an interdependent society, implying that those who are well off and own substantial property do have a responsibility to care for the interests of the poorer sections of society. Furthermore, the theory of the organic society leads to a belief that politics should not seek to change society artificially (as socialists and liberals believe), it should allow it to develop naturally

Question 84

are conservatives pragmatists or dogmatists?

Answer 84

conservatives are pragmatists

Question 85

What does conservative philosopher Michael Oakeshott believe about politics

Answer 85

He believes that politics should be ‘a conservation, not an argument’ meaning that political action should never be the result of conflict over political dogma and theory, but the result of a more-gentle relationship between the government and governed. Pragmatism implies a flexible approach to politics, incorporating an understanding of what is best for the people, what is acceptable to them and what will preserve a stable society. Conservatives are pragmatists and thus see the government as an exercise in maintaining continuity, order and security and avoiding disorder. Government should not, they argue seek to change society in radical ways. Socialists and Liberals may have fixed views on how to change society but conservatives reject this kind of ideological outlook as they view changing society as inherently undemocratic

Question 86

What have conservatives been viewed the defenders of?

Answer 86

Conservatives have been viewed as defenders of the property-owning classes, at a time when most people owned no property at all. With widespread property ownership in modern era, however it is less significant conservative trait. In the modern context, conservatives have always attempted to defend the interests of home owners and of the owners of land and business. Property ownership for conservatives is a fundamental aspect of individualism and is a desirable aspiration to be shared by all. More significantly, the right to own and enjoy one’s own property is a reflection of a civilised existence, as property owners are seen to have a greater vested interest in order and so will help to ensure that there is stability in society.

Question 87

which party is the most successful modern-voting political party and the main governing party for most of the 20th century?

Answer 87

The conservative party is the most successful modern-voting political party and the main governing party for most of the 20th century by closely associating itself with one-nation principles. Conservative PMs such as Stanley Baldwin, Harold Macmillan and Edward heath all saw themselves within this tradition and sough to govern in the interests of the whole nation, accepting that the government had a major role to play in creating a more prosperous and inclusive society. However, this one-nation conservatism was eclipsed with the emergence of a new tradition of conservatism under the leadership of Margaret Thatcher: the new right

Question 88

Who was in power in the uk during 2010?

Answer 88

in 2010 there was a coalition government between the the conservatives and liberal democrats. - David Cameron and nick clegg

Question 89

when was David Cameron party leader and how many elections did he face?

Answer 89

David Cameron’s election as party leader in 2006, in the wake of three consecutive general election defeats for the conservatives was widely seen as analogous to the kind of epiphany that the labour party experienced a decade earlier under tony Blair.

Question 90

Why is David Cameron referred to the ‘heir to blair’

Answer 90

Cameron was widely referred as the ‘heir to Blair’. He initially sought to lead the conservatives away from areas of policy over which the party was deeply divided e.g. Europe and towards those where it could gain electoral advantage e.g. the environment. He recognised that the party had come to be regarded as unelectable (or the ‘nasty party’, as Theresa May had put it back in 2002) and set about ‘detoxifying’ the conservative brand. This aim was reflected in the conservatives 2010 general election pledge to fix ‘broken Britain’, and govern as a party of one nation. His emphasis on a ‘big society’ and the introduction of the NCS was a way of acknowledging the importance of our shared membership in society.

Question 91

What happened when the conservatives and liberal democrats gained power in 2010 and what was the problems?

Answer 91

When they gained power in 2010, it was faced an economic crisis, the main aspects of which was huge and growing budget deficit. The national debt was a huge as a result of previous governments overspending. Its economic policy was dominated by the aim of eliminating budget deficits (i.e. having a balanced budget) and reducing the national debt through a range austerity policies designed to reduce state spending. The belief was that only a balanced budget can promote economic growth. However, their policies were not just designed to reduce the national debt but also reflected ideology. This government were committed to pursuing the Thatcherite agenda of ‘rolling back the frontiers of the state’

Question 92

Why couldn’t the conservative party deliver on the few explicit promises that they had made in the run up to the 2010 general election?

Answer 92

The need to keep the party’s liberal democrat coalition partners engaged made it difficult for the conservatives to deliver on the very few explicit promises that they had made in the run up to the 2010 general election

Question 93

in 2008, Richard Kelly offered three possible early judgments on Cameron’s conservatism what were they?

Answer 93

Richard Kelly offered three possible early judgments on Cameron’s conservatism:
- that it represented a ‘flagrant capitulation to new labour’
- that it should be seen as a ‘subtle continuation of capitulation to New Labour’
- that it amounted to little more than ‘shameless opportunism’
While there were elements of truth in all these judgments it was the last that defined him. His promised of an in/out referendum on the EU ahead of the 2015 general election certainly seen as evidence of such opportunism, with the party internally divided on the issue and facing a challenge from UKIP in its electoral heartlands.

Question 94

Was the conservative government single-party or coalition in 2015?

Answer 94

The conservative party returned to office as a single party government in 2015.

Question 95

Did the conservative government make any substantial changes when returning to office?

Answer 95

The conservatives in coalition (2010-15) could be forgiven for not delivering on some of their policy pledges, it was perhaps more surprising that they did not attempt to make more substantial changes after being returned to office as a single party government. However, the decision to hold the EU referendum so early in the parliament mean that cabinet colleagues found it hard to work together towards policy goals in the conventional way. The result of the referendum, leading to Cameron’s resignation as PM and replacement by Theresa May, also limited the effective working of the government. With the triggering of the early election in 2017, the opportunities for the conservative government to achieve many of its policies was severely limited.

Question 96

why did Cameron resign as prime minster?

Answer 96

Cameron resigned as a result of the EU referendum.

Question 97

Why did the Eu referendum make it hard for cabinet colleagues?

Answer 97

However, the decision to hold the EU referendum so early in the parliament mean that cabinet colleagues found it hard to work together towards policy goals in the conventional way. The result of the referendum, leading to Cameron’s resignation as PM and replacement by Theresa May, also limited the effective working of the government. With the triggering of the early election in 2017, the opportunities for the conservative government to achieve many of its policies was severely limited.

Question 98

who replaced Cameron as PM?

Answer 98

Theresa May in 2017

Question 99

Why was May forced to drop many of her more controversial policies?

Answer 99

May set out a number of significant proposals beyond the issue of Brexit in the 2017 manifesto, it was always likely that the issue of Brexit would dominate the government’s agenda for the full parliamentary term, regardless of the result. However, by losing the majority and being forced to operate as a minority government, with the support of the DUP, May was forced to drop many of her more controversial policies, particularly those that were believed to have cost their party outright victory in the election.

Question 100

What was May’s ideas on the economy, market and policy?

Answer 100

Under May, the goal of a balanced budget was seen as unattainable and inhibiting economic growth. However, party policy remains pragmatic and cautious about economic policy and believed that public expenditure must be kept under careful control. The party retains a neo-liberal position in its attitude to markets. Government policy should always promote free markets and free trade. To this end, it is determined to curb the power of trade unions to keep labour markets free.

Question 101

What was May’s party attitude to taxation?

Answer 101

It’s attitude to taxation is partly neo-liberal and partly social democratic. on one hand, believing that personal and company taxation should never be excessively high as this will inhibit enterprise and wealth creation - a neo-liberal view, reflected in reductions in corporation tax. On the other hand, the party has accepted that taxation on lower incomes is too high - an aim of social democracy. It therefore seeks to take many more people out of taxation altogether. The burden of tax has been shifted towards middle income groups.

Question 102

What was May’s ideas and policies on law and order?

Answer 102

The party retains the view that prison and stern punishments are the best deterrent against crime. It believes that sentencing policy should be in the hands of elected government and not unelected judges. The party is opposed to ‘liberal’ ideas about crime and punishment and opposes such proposals as the legislation of drugs and the excessive use of ‘community’ sentences where offenders do not go to prison but make amends in their community. They stress the need for security and see it as the first duty of government to protect its citizen. In the fight against terrorism, therefore they accept that civil liberties (privacy, freedom of movement and expression) may have to be sacrificed in the interests of security.

Question 103

What was May’s ideas and policies on welfare?

Answer 103

Modern conservative policy concentrates on the need to ensure that welfare benefits are no longer disincentive to work. The government introduced a stricter system of means testing to prevent making unemployment a preferable option. Two policies seek to restore the balance between work and benefits. One is introduction of a ‘living wage’ (or minimum wage) as a greater reward for work at lower levels of pay. The second is an overall cap on total welfare benefits, so that unemployment is less attractive. Party policy is committed to maintain the welfare state and safeguarding the NHS and the education system. However, the party believes that these two services should be subject to competition and market forces and that private sector enterprises should become involved in the provision of services. This it believes can increase efficiently so that services can improve without increasing expenditure on them.

Question 104

What are the policies may put in her party policy?

Answer 104

The government introduced a stricter system of means testing to prevent making unemployment a preferable option. Two policies seek to restore the balance between work and benefits. One is introduction of a ‘living wage’ (or minimum wage) as a greater reward for work at lower levels of pay. The second is an overall cap on total welfare benefits, so that unemployment is less attractive. Party policy is committed to maintain the welfare state and safeguarding the NHS and the education system.

Question 105

What was May policy and ideas on foreign policy?

Answer 105

They support NATO and the close alliance with the US, but recognise that the UK’s best national interests lie in retaining an independent foreign policy. If it is in the UK’s interest they believe that the country should intervene in foreign conflicts. It is committed to retaining the UK’s independent nuclear deterrent in the form of Trident submarine-based weapons. After considerable internal conflict, the party has decided to retain the UK’s generous contributions to international aid.

Question 106

What was may’s policy and ideas on social justice?

Answer 106

Just as Disraeli came to believe 150 years ago, the party has came once more to understand that too much inequality breeds social conflict. It has, therefore sought to reduce excessive inequality by introducing the idea of a living wage and by reducing income tax for those on a low income but it has resisted imposing higher rates of tax on the wealthy.

Question 107

What was May’s policy and ideas on the environment?

Answer 107

The conservative party has led the way towards more effective emissions control. It is committed to promoting renewable energy sources, through it prefers nuclear to wind.

Question 108

What was May’s policy and ideas on the constitution?

Answer 108

The conservative party lives up to its name when it comes to constitutional change. Conservatives are reluctant to reform the constitution and have effectively blocked reformed of both the house of lords and the electoral system. The party is also strongly unionist in that it opposes policy that might promote independence movements in the nation’s regions. (want power to be centralised)

Question 109

What did Boris Johnson’s conservative party advocate for?

Answer 109

• ‘get Brexit done’ - negotiate a Brexit deal and have a smooth transition from the EU
• Covid 19 - coronavirus act
• restrict the power of the supreme court to challenge the government decisions
• to restrict free movement: tough stance on immigration
• restrict the right to peacefully protest/ demonstration
• to fix adult social care - due to ageing population + invest more in care homes, nursing and homes
• build, build, build - more housing

Question 110

Why does the conservative party have party factions?

Answer 110

The conservative party is the most internally divided party compared to any other major parties. It has a number of factions or groupings which hold significantly different ideas that the main body of the party. This is partly because the party has been the product of two different conservative traditions and partly because conservatism has always been a broad organisation welcoming people with a wide variety of opinions (broad church)
- The ideologies of the party are not especially strong, so it can accommodate many views on the centre and right of UK politics.

Question 111

State the names of conservative party factions:

Answer 111

• Cornerstone
• European Research Group
• Conservative Way Forward
• Tory Reform Group

Question 112

Who is Cornerstone and explain what the group is and what they advocate and stand for?

Answer 112

Cornerstone is a formal party faction within the conservative party who is lead by members Jacob Rees-Mogg and Edward Leigh.
Their motto is ‘Faith, Flag and Family’.
- The motto gives a strong clue to its members beliefs. The faction wishes to restore very traditional values to the conservative movement.
- It supports the idea of the UK being a Christian country, it is intensely nationalist in its outlook and it wishes to retain ‘family values’ - this implies a reactionary attitude to social reforms such as gay marriage and legal abortion (very negative stance to towards social reform).

Question 113

Who is the European Research Group and explain what the group is and what they advocate and stand for?

Answer 113

The European research group is not a strictly speaking a faction, but an extremely influential Brexit research group made up of conservative Eurosceptics formed in 1992.

• The group’s focus was the single issue of the UK’s withdrawal from the EU. In the period, leading up to the EU referendum, ten members of the ERG acted in an official capacity for vote leave including: Jacob Rees-Mogg, Michael Gove, Priti Patel and Iain Duncan-smith.
• The ERG also had considerable influence shaping May’s Brexit negotiations (on sep 11 2018, they met in Westminster to discuss plans to oust May as PM)

Question 114

Who is the Conservative Way Forward and explain what the group is and what they advocate and stand for?

Answer 114

Conservative way forward looks back to the era of thatcher and is largely a neo-liberal movement.

• Members believe the legacy of thatcher has been diluted. They support the retention of free markets and support free enterprise through low taxation and deregulation of industry.
• Like other neo-liberals the group is strongly opposed to trade union power and to excessive welfare provision.
• Leading members include Liam Fox and Gerald Howarth

Question 115

Who is the Tory Reform Group and explain what the group is and what they advocate and stand for?

Answer 115

The Tory reform group is a group which stands at the centre of politics but is often seen as ‘left-leaning’ in the conservative party.

• The faction promotes social cohesion and therefore opposes policies that might divide the nation. Members are sometimes described as ‘one-nation Tories’
• In particular, they believe that too much economic inequality is divisive and so support policies to reduce inequality in society. They are also concerned to establish and retain equal rights.
• Former chancellor Kenneth Clark is a key member (also a passionate defender and outspoken, supporter of Europe throughout his political career and more recently a remainer).

Question 116

What is neo-liberalism? (new-right)

Answer 116

Neoliberalism is the idea that less government interference in the free market is the central goal of politics.
Neo liberals who endorsed the free-market approach and rolling back the frontiers of the state in peoples lives and businesses

Neoliberals believe in a ‘small government’ which limits itself to enhancing the economic freedoms of businesses and entrepreneurs. The state should limit itself to the protection of private property and basic law enforcement. (more new-right)

Neoliberalism is most closely associated with Thomas Hayek and Milton Friedman, and the policies of Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher.

Question 117

What is neo-conservatism? (one-nation/ traditional conservatism)

Answer 117

Neo conservatism is the ideology of wanting the state to take more of an authoritarian approach to morality and law order.

Neo-Conservatives are principally concerned with the fear of social fragmentation, tough on law and order and public morality.

Neo-conservatives are primarily focused upon questions of morality and the need for social order. They adopt a more authoritarian perspective than neo-liberals within the Tory Party.

According to neo-conservatives, there is a very clear distinction between right and wrong based upon religious teachings and social traditions. This contrast is more noticeable within the United States, a society with a high level of religious attendance. Neo-conservatives also seek cultural homogeneity and favour an organic society.

Question 118

What is participation crisis?

Answer 118

A lack of engagement by a significant number of citizens to relate to the political process either by choosing not to vote or to join or become members of political parties or to offer themselves for public office

Question 119

What is old labour (social democracy) ?

Answer 119

key labour principles embodying nationalisation, redistribution of wealth from rich to poor and the provision of continually improving welfare and state services, which largely rejected Thatcherite/free-market reforms or a Blairite approach.

Question 120

What is new labour (third way)

Answer 120

A revision of traditional labour values and ideals represented by old labour. Influenced by Anthony Giddens, the ‘third way’ saw labour shift in emphasis from a heavy focus on the working class to a wider class base, and a less robust alliance with the trade unions.

Question 121

What is one nation?

Answer 121

A paternalistic approach adopted by conservatives under the leadership of Benjamin Disraeli in the 19th century and continued by David Cameron and Theresa May in the 21st century, that the rich have an obligation to help the poor

Question 122

What is left wing?

Answer 122

A widely used term for those who desire change, reform and alteration to the way in which society operates. Often this involves radical criticisms of the capitalism made by liberal and socialist partiers.

Question 123

What is right wing?

Answer 123

This term reflects support for the status quo, little or no change stressing the need for order, stability and hierarchy - generally relates to conservative parties.

Question 124

What is the minority government?

Answer 124

A government that enters office but which does not have a majority of seats in the legislature (parliament). This makes passing legislation very difficult.

Question 125

What is the coalition government?

Answer 125

A government that is formed of more than one political party. It is normally accompanied by an agreement over policy options and office of state, as was the conservative-liberal-democrat coalition from 2010-2015

Question 126

Before the 20th century did the working class have a party that could represent them in parliament?

Answer 126

Until the 20th century the working classes, many of whom who did not win the right to vote until 1884 and many more did not benefit from this right until the extension of the franchise to all men over 21 in 1918 were largely represented by a collection of MPs and peers, from both the liberal and conservative parties as the working class had no party to represent them or their interests.

Question 127

When did trade unions become legalised?

Answer 127

Trade unions became legalised towards the end of the 19th century. The working class at last had organisations which could represent their interests. It was therefore, logical that the unions should begin to put up a candidate for election to the UK parliament. But the unions were not a political party and did not seek power. This meant a new party was needed and thus led to two new parties of the left emerging

Question 128

When was the main labour party created?

Answer 128

The main labour party was created in 1900, and was very much an offshoot of the trade union movement. It was funded by the unions and many of its members were union leaders and members.

Question 129

when was the independent labour party created?

Answer 129

In 1893, a socialist party had already been founded known as the independent labour party. The ILP was a genuinely socialist party, committed to the overthrow of capitalism and its replacement by a workers’ state, albeit by peaceful democratic means.

Question 130

contrast the ideas and views of the labour party and independent labour party

Answer 130

The independent labour party was a socialist party committed to the overthrow of capitalism and its replacement by a worker states albeit by a peaceful democratic means while in contrast the labour party wanted a more moderate socialist party which did not propose a worker’s state but simply wished to improve the conditions of the working class and to control the excesses of capitalism. The state as envisaged by labour, would seek to reconcile the conflicting interests of the working class and those of their employers.

The distinction is essentially the ILP was purely socialist while labour was a more moderate form of socialist party, generally known for democratic socialism.

Question 131

When did the independent labour party form an agreement with new labour party?

Answer 131

In 1906, the independent labour party formed an agreement with the new labour party. They agreed not to put up parliamentary candidates against each other
in the same constituencies. However, this agreement was short-lived and the two parties began to go their separate ways.

Question 132

What is socialism?

Answer 132

A political ideology advocating a greater equality and the redistribution of wealth. Socialists are critical of capitalism. They favour greater government intervention, in both economic and social policy.

Question 133

What is revisionist (or reformist) socialism? (labour party)

Answer 133

Revisionist socialism looks to improve capitalism (e.g. social democracy)

Question 134

What is revolutionary (or fundamentalist) socialism? (independent labour party)

Answer 134

Revolutionary socialism aims to abolish capitalism and bring all property into common ownership e.g Marxist communism)

Question 135

What is Social Democracy?

Answer 135

A political ideology that accepts the basic premise of capitalism while advocating a more equitable distribution of wealth along the lines favoured by all socialists.

Question 136

What main characteristics can you see in the Labour Party today that stem from the developments of the labour party of the past ?

Answer 136

• The party continues to be financed largely by trade unions and union leaders play a major role in the party organisation
• Although the ILP no longer exists, its traditions can still be found among a persistent group of left-wingers who formed a faction within the party
  (many of this faction were responsible for the election of Jeremy Corbyn, a prominent left-winger and party leader in 2015. some of them still promote the ideas that formed the basis of the ideology of the old independent labour party)

Question 137

When did the labour party begin to grow and challenge the position of other parties?

Answer 137

The labour party grew steadily both inside and outside parliament and by the end of the first world war it was in a position to challenge the ailing liberal party. Between the wars (1918-1939), there were two minority labour administrations whose existence proved that labour was capable of being a recognised party of the government. But it was not until 1945, that the party won a landside victory under the leadership of clement
attlee and was able to govern on its own.

Question 138

When labour first gain a landslide victory and under which prime minister?

Answer 138

It was in 1945, that the labour party won a landside victory under the leadership of Clement Attlee and was able to govern on its own. Labour took office between 1945 and 1951 - a period marked by the creation of the welfare state and the National Health Service, and a major programme of nationalising strategic industries. The country recovered well after a devastating war, and by the time labour left office it had attained full employment, achieved a balance of international payments and created a welfare state. From then on, Labour became the UK’s second major party and regularly competed with the CP for power.

Question 139

What did Labour do when they were in office during 1945 - 1951?

Answer 139

Labour took office between 1945 and 1951 - a period marked by the creation of the welfare state and the National Health Service, and a major programme of nationalising strategic industries. The country recovered well after a devastating war, and by the time labour left office it had attained full employment, achieved a balance of international payments and created a welfare state. From then on, Labour became the UK’s second major party and regularly competed with the CP for power.

Question 140

When the labour party suffered two huge defeats and how did this impact the party?

Answer 140

In the 1980s, the labour party suffered two huge defeats at the hands of Margaret Thatcher’s CP.

• This ultimately resulted in a split in the party. Some left to form a new party: the Social Democratic Party (SDP): some, led by Michael Foot and Tony Benn, wished to return to ‘Old labour’ values and even more to the left:

others led by Neil Kinnock and John Smith, however the saw the future of the party lying in more moderate policies, towards the centre of politics.

-This branch of the party became known as ‘New labour’. After John Smith’s sudden death in 1992, Tony Blair became leader, closely supported by Gordon Brown, Robin Cook and Peter Mandelson. Blair led the party to three election victories in 1997, 2001 and 2005.

Question 141

explain a summary of the labour party

Answer 141

Labour can essentially be divided into two traditions:

1 - The first, the ‘old labour’ period, runs from the early days (1900s) until the 1990s
2 - The second, the ‘New labour’ Period, runs from the early 1990s until the present, when the party is splitting once again.

The best way to understand the two traditions is to look at their general values, then its actual policies.

Question 142

State old labour values

Answer 142

• The key value is equality. Old labour support the redistribution of income to reduce the worst inequalities and promote social justice.
• Old labour supporters tend to see society in terms of class conflict
• Trade unionism is a key value, in an attempt to restore the balance of power between employers and workers
• Recognising that total equality was not feasible, they championed equality of opportunity
• Collectivism is a general idea shared by socialists of all kinds. It is the concept that many of our goals are best achieved collectively rather than individually. It includes practical applications as the welfare state, trade unionism and the cooperative movement.
• Support public ownership of major strategic industries, run by the state on the behalf of the people
• A belief that the central state could play a key role in controlling economic activity and in securing social goals. This may be described as statism. By placing such responsibilities in the hands of the central state it ensured equality of treatment of all.
• Welfarism is important. This is the idea, associated with collectivism, that every member of society should be protected by a welfare system to which all should contribute.

Question 143

state old labour policies and actions

Answer 143

• Discrimination against women and ethnic minorities was outlawed in the 1960s and 70s, equal pay for women was introduced
• Taxes on those with higher incomes were raised in order to pay for welfare, and to redistribute income to the poor
• Comprehensive education was introduced in the 1960s to improve equality of opportunity.
• Trade unions were granted wide powers to take industrial action in the interests of their members
• Major industries were brought into public ownership (nationalization) and state control in the interests of the community and the workers in those industries. Among the industries were coal, steel, shipbuilding, rail and energy
• The welfare state, including the NHS was created in the 1940s.

Question 144

Why the labour party need to broaden their appeal after their three election defeats in 1979, 1983 and 1987?

Answer 144

Although the labour party was formed to represent the working class, changes in the class and occupational structure of the nation e.g. less traditional jobs such as mining or textiles, changes in structures of social classes, increase in graduate professions and increase in people going to university since the 1960s, together with the three general election defeats saw the party looking to broaden its appeal beyond its core support and move towards centre politics

• (class dealignment and partisan dealignment trends growing meaning less working class would vote for labour and more likely to conservative)

Question 145

Who started the process of outreach and making labour more approachable and appealing to the public?

Answer 145

The process of outreach started by leaders such as Neil Kinnock and John Smith, is most closely associated with Tony Blair who had a transformative impact on the labour party which was so great it became known as ‘new labour’

Question 146

Who is Blair strongly influenced by?

Answer 146

Blair was strongly influenced by the principles of the ‘third way’ which was created by economic and political philosopher and sociologist, Anthony Giddens: This was a new ideological position which proposed policies which lay somewhere between leftist socialism and rightist neo-liberalism

Question 147

What did Anthony Giddens believe the ‘third way’ represented?

Answer 147

According, to Giddens the ‘third way’ represented a compromise between socialism and capitalism (a ‘middle way’).

He believed that labour governments ought not to commit themselves to ideological principles such as nationalisation, redistributive taxation and class conflict. Gone too far was the socialist commitment to collectivism and equality which lead to division within the party.

Question 148

What did Anthony Giddens believe that labour should focus on?

Answer 148

He believed that labour governments ought not to commit themselves to ideological principles such as nationalisation, redistributive taxation and class conflict. Gone too far was the socialist commitment to collectivism and equality which lead to division within the party.
Instead, Labour should focus on the establishment of a 'stakeholder society' based on the principle of inclusion rather than trying to create a more equal society. They should enact policies to encourage wealth creation rather than wealth distribution and loosen its ties with the trade union movement, in a bid to become a less-class based party.
- In short, labour should work for the achievement of social justice within a prosperous capitalist economy.

Question 149

What was socialism in definition to Tony Blair?

Answer 149

According to Blair, ‘socialism for me was never about nationalization or the power of the state.. It is a moral purpose to life, a set of values, a belief in society, in cooperation, in achieving together what we cannot achieve alone.

Question 150

What was a key moment in the development of new labour?

Answer 150

A key moment in the development of new labour, was when in 1995 clause IV of the labour party constitution (1918) was modified and controversially rewarded so that the party abandoned its commitment to nationalisation (common ownership) and accepted the economic benefits of a free-market economy. (a more pro-capitalist labour)
- Some critics accused Blair and other labour modernisers of abandoning the socialist principles upon which the party had been founded on.

Question 151

What did the clause IV of the labour party constitution 1918 state?

Answer 151

In 1918, it stated that ‘to secure for the workers by hand or by brain the full fruits of their industry and the most equitable distribution thereof that may be possible upon the basis of the common ownership of the means of production’

• focuses more on socialism, equal distribution and anti-capitalism.

Question 152

What did the reworded clause IV of the labour party constitution 1995 state?

Answer 152

in 1995, it reworded to state ‘We work for a dynamic economy, serving the public interest, in which the enterprise of the market and the rigour of competition are joined with the forces of partnership and cooperation to produce the wealth the nation needs and the opportunity for all to work and prosper, with a thriving private sector and high quality public services.

• focuses more on cooperation and collaboration, socialistic elements with a capitalistic society and wealth creation and encourages competition and a private sector (privatisation which old labour was against as they believed led to inequality)

Question 153

Explain why the labour party under tony Blair felt the need to make a change within their party to new labour?

Answer 153

The labour party under Blair needed this change as they felt they were not getting elected under their old policies and nationalistic ideas and higher tax policies which meant Blair felt the need for the new labour to make the party more ‘electable’ and more representative of society. As during this time society’s organisational structures had changed and there was the increasing trend of partisan and class dealignment.

Question 154

state new labour values

Answer 154

• New Labour thinkers rejected the socialist ideas of class conflict, arguing that all members of society have an equal right to be supported by the state.
• They accept that capitalism was the best way of creating wealth so it should remain largely free of state
  control. However, it is recognised that capitalism can operate against the interests of consumers, so it should be regulated, though not controlled. The state should be an enabling state. Allowing the economy to create wealth and giving it the support where needed but the state should not on the whole, engage in the production itself. (anti-nationalisation)
• New labour de-emphasised collectivism, recognising that people prefer to achieve their goals individually. Individualism was seen as a fundamental aspect of human nature.
• Equality of opportunity was stressed. Education and welfare would create opportunities for people to better themselves.
• Communitarianism is the concept that, although people are individuals with individual goals, we are also part of an organic community and have obligations and duties in return for our individual life chances. This is a weaker form of collectivism
• The party recognised that the UK was deeply undemocratic and that rights were inadequately protected. It therefore was committed to political and constitutional reform

Question 155

state new labour policies and actions

Answer 155

• reductions in corporate taxation to encourage enterprise. Thatcher’s chancellor of the exchequer, Nigel Lawson, had lowered the top rate of taxation to 40% in 1988. - Blair kept in at 40% on the basis that the wealthiest in society are wealth creators and that the economy would grow faster if their taxes were kept low.
• Through the tax and welfare system, various policies were introduced to reduce poverty, especially child and pensioner poverty. e.g minimum wage was established. Encouraging employment by introducing ‘welfare to work’ systems.
• Significant increase in spending on public services, e.g huge increased in expenditure on the NHS and large investment in education, especially in early years.
• State schools were given greater independence from local authorities and tuition fees were introduced: students would have to contribute towards their higher education
• An extensive program of constitutional reform was introduced to transform the location of power in the Uk: the European convention of human rights was incorporated into the human right act of 1998, an independent supreme court was established, referendums paved the way for devolved assemblies in Scotland, wales and northern Ireland, electoral reform in devolved administrations in 1999 most of the hereditary peers were removed from the house of lords and freedom of information.
• Tough new laws such as anti-social behaviour orders (ASBOs) were introduced to combat crime.

Question 156

Describe the role of representation as being one of the functions of political parties

Answer 156

Parties usually claim to have representation function as many parties claim to represent a specific function of society. for example. labour represents the interest of the working class and trade union members or conservatives representing the interests of landed gentry and aristocracy. This has however, in contemporary society changed - due to partisan and class dealignment accompanied by the rise of centrist ‘catch-all’ parties, have undermined this role.

Today, all parties argue they represent the national interest and not just the interest of specific sections of society, social classes or groups. so parties do have a representative function but today seek to ensure all groups of society have their interests and demands at least considered by government. However in reality, parties tend to be biased towards the interests of one section of society or another.

Question 157

What is populist parties?

Answer 157

Populist parties is a new phenomenon recently emerged. these parties tend to emerge rapidly and often disappear equally quickly. Typically, they represent people who feel they have been ignored by conventional parties - in other words, that they are not represented at all. The appeal of populist parties is usually emotional or visceral and plays on people’s fears and dissatisfactions. They generally take root among the poor who are left behind and can be both left and right wing.

Question 158

What are issue parties?

Answer 158

issue parties represent a particular cause. green parties are the best example but increasingly new parties are dedicated to advancing women’s rights in parts of Europe. Nevertheless, most contemporary parties in modern democracies still lay claim to representing the national interest.

Question 159

Describe the role of selecting candidates as a function of political parties

Answer 159

a key function of political parties is to select candidates to fight in local, regional, mayoral and general elections.

The national party leadership have some influence over which candidates are chosen, but it is in this role that local constituency parties have the greatest part to play. They find prospective candidates who go through a selection process to become an approved candidate. In order to contest, a general election, once a candidate wins a seat she/he can claim to have an electoral mandate to represent that seat in the house of commons.

However, the local party can also deselect them from fighting the next election if their views are too opposed to those of local activists - this highlights the significance of a local party. (momentum is particularly in favour of using the prospect of deselection to ensure labour Mps at west minister represent the interests of the local party activists. who have generally been more favourable towards Jeremy corbyn than the parliamentary party)

Question 160

Describe the role of identifying leaders as a function of political parties

Answer 160

The members of a political party also play an important role in the election of a party leader. They therefore have procedures in place for identifying leaders.

in the conservative party, the parliamentary party will agree on two Mps, whose names will then go forward to party members to decide between.

under ed miliband, labour also adopted one member one vote. The current rules state if an MP can secure the backing of 10% of the parliamentary party then their name will go forward to the party membership to vote on.

Question 161

describe the role of organising elections as a function of a political party

Answer 161

The way in which political parties campaign during elections plays a key part in the democratic process. apart from supplying approved candidates, the party organisations form a part of the process of publicising election issues, persuading people to vote and informing them about their candidates. Party activists deliver leaflets, canvass voters on the doorstep and arrange political hustings so that voters understand the choice between candidates. Without the huge efforts of the thousand party activists at election time, the already modest turnout at the polls would be even lower. Representatives of the parties also present the counting of the votes takes place so they play a part in ensuring elections are honest and fair.

Question 162

Describe the role of political education as a function of political parties

Answer 162

Parties are continuously involved in the process of informing the people about the political issues of the day, explaining the main areas of conflict and outlining their own solutions to identified problems. However the media to some extent, have taken over un supplying information to the public - the internet and social media have particularly marginalised the parties. pressure groups too have played an increasing role in informing the public

Question 163

Describe the role of reinforcing consent as a function of political parties

Answer 163

parties have a ‘hidden’ but vital function in the mobilisation and reinforcement of consent. All the main parties support the political system of the Uk - that is, parliamentary democracy. By operating and supporting this system parties are part of the process that ensures the general population consents to the system. If parties were to challenge the nature of the political systems in any fundamental way, this would create political conflict within society at large.