democracy and participation Flashcards

Question

What is a Manifesto?

Answer 1

A manifesto is a written document/statement outlining a party's agreed policies, promises and pledges produced during an election campaign to inform the public about the political platform upon which its candidates are standing. Candidates for the party are expected to support the manifesto and usually do so in the UK, through there may be some exceptions. - A manifesto is a written document that contains a list of promises/policies that is put together by a political party pre-election.

Answer 2

Representative democracy is a form of government where the people elect or somehow choose representatives who make political decisions on their behalf. It also implies that representatives are accountable for what they do. - The most common democratic model in the world today. - The basis of this type of democracy is that the people do not make political decisions but instead choose representatives to make decisions on their behalf, - The most common way of choosing their representatives is to elect them, in Ancient Greece sometimes they were chosen by lottery. If representatives are not elected it calls democracy into question - Elections are what we often think of representation but elections do not characterize representative democracy alone. - Those elected must be held accountable

Answer 3

Accountability is very important, as it is essential that representatives act responsibly and in the interests of the people they represent and make decisions for. - It is during election time that accountability is most striking as both individual representatives like MPs in the UK and the government as a whole are held accountable when people go to the polls. - During an election opposition parties will highlight the shortcomings of the government and will offer their own alternatives - At the same time the government will seek to explain and justify what it has done in an effort to be re-elected

Answer 4

They are held accountable during election time at the polls. Individual representatives will be held to account for their performance e.g. how well they have represented their own constituents. Government are held to account as a whole when the people go to the polls - In between elections accountability can be less certain. The legislature can hold the government to account regularly, while individual representatives are usually safe until the next election

Answer 5

The uk is a representative democracy

Answer 6

The UK is a representative democracy as we elect politicians to make decisions on our behalf. There are so many complicated decisions that need to be made in a modern democracy that it would be impossible for the public to understand the issues and vote on them all It is the job of professional politicians to acquire the political understanding so they can make informed decisions on behalf of the nation as a whole

Answer 7

Voters retain sovereignty because they decide whether or not to renew the mandate of their representatives in elections

Answer 8

Representative democracy is based on the idea that elected politicians should represent the interests of all their constituents - MP's therefore spend a lot of time in their constituencies listening to the concerns of their constituents in public meetings or surgeries

Answer 9

Elected politicians should not act on just the wishes of their constituents, if they did they would be just a delegate. Instead they have to make decisions based on their constituents and the party manifesto, and their wider understanding of an issue. In other words, politicians should act on their best judgments rather than just follow voter wishes.

Answer 10

The Westminster Parliament contains 650 MPs whom are accountable to their constituents in regular general elections

Answer 11

Scotland, wales and Northern Ireland have their own devolved governments, while elected mayors and local councils provide another layer of representation for the public

Answer 12

- The government is made up of professionals who are required to be well informed about issues - They are more likely to make informed decisions than the general public, who may be swayed by emotion and not fully understand the complexities of the issue. Parliamentary bills are drawn up carefully by ministers and civil servants, debated in the house of commons and the house of lords, analysed in committees and amendments added before they are enacted - Elected politicians balance conflicting interests when reaching decisions. This is important in protecting the rights of all citizens, especially minorities and ensuring that the implications of a decision on all members of a community have been examined and considered - In a direct democracy, the public vote according to their self interest without always considering the effect on others. This is more likely to form a majoritarian form of democracy in which the rights and interests of a minority may be neglected - Representative democracies also have accountability where regular elections mean voters can decide whether or not to renew the mandate of their representatives, if the public don't like the policies of a government they can elect a different one

Answer 13

- MP's may be disengaged from the public so do not adequately represent their interests. Pressure groups, lobbyists, and the London based media may create a 'Westminster Bubble', which disconnects voters and their representatives - MP's can have outside interests like second jobs (which is allowed as long as they are declared) which can lead to a conflict of interests and compromise their ability to represent their constituents interests - The Westminster parliament is especially unrepresentative since it is elected through first past the post. As a result the conservatives and labour dominate the House of commons and minority parties like the Green party struggle to gain representation despite polling well at times - The social make up of parliament is still primarily, white, male and upper middle class. critics say that the interests of the poor are poorly represented. The house of lords is unelected and therefore not accountable to the public, further undermining how representative parliament is.

Answer 14

An electoral system where the person with the most number of votes is elected. Victory is achieved by having one more vote than other contenders - it is also called a plurality system

Answer 15

Legitimacy is the rightful use of power in accordance with pre-set criteria or widely held agreements such as a government's right to rule following an election or a monarch's succession based on the agreed rules

Answer 16

A flaw in the democratic process where decisions are taken by people who lack legitimacy, not having been appointed with sufficient democratic input or subject to accountability

Answer 17

A lack of engagement by a significant number of citizens to relate to the political process either by choosing not to vote or to join or to become members of political parties or to offer themselves for public office

Answer 18

Franchise and suffrage both refer to the ability/right to vote in public elections. Suffragettes were women campaigning for the right to vote on the same terms as men.

Answer 19

A body of experts brought together to collectively focus on a certain topic(s) - to investigate and offer solutions to often complicated and seemingly intractable economic, social and political issues

Answer 20

A lobbyist is paid by clients to try to influence the government and/or MPs and members of the house of lords to act in their client's interests, particularly when legislation is under consideration

Answer 21

Social representation implies that the characteristics of members of representatives bodies, whether they are national parliaments, regional assemblies or local councils, should be broadly in line with the characteristics of the population as a whole. In other words, they should be close to being a 'microcosm' of society as a whole e.g. close to half should be women, a proportion should be ethnic or religious minorities, there should be a good range of ages, class etc, However, this is difficult to achieve and the UK parliament certainly falls short of this ideal.

Answer 22

Representatives are usually elected locally or regionally, but if they sit in a national parliament they are expected to represent the interests of the nation as a whole

Answer 23

if representatives are sitting in a national parliament they are expected to represent the interests of the nation as a whole. Sometimes this can clash with the local constituency they represent so they have to resolve the issue their own way. For example, Conservative MP's representing their constituencies near Heathrow airport are under pressure to oppose a third runway on the grounds of noise, disruption and pollution, despite their party saying it is in the national interest to build the runway. Most issues in the national interest, like foreign policy usually do not have an effect on local issues

Answer 24

For example, Conservative MP's representing their constituencies near Heathrow airport are under pressure to oppose a third runway on the grounds of noise, disruption and pollution, despite their party saying it is in the national interest to build the runway. Most issues in the national interest, like foreign policy usually do not have an effect on local issues

Answer 25

The locality that elects a representative in UK national politics is known as constituency. In other countries, other names are given. In the US - congressmen and women represent congressional districts Wherever this kind of representation exists it is concerned with local interests

Answer 26

- It can mean representing the interests of the constituency as a whole. E.g. should the building of a new railway be opposed? Can central government funds be accessed to redevelop a town centre? Will high levels of immigration into an area upset the social balance? - It can also mean representing the interests of individual constituents. This is often described as the redress of grievances. For example, has a constituent been unfairly treated by a public body like the NHS or HMRC? Is an asylum seeker no receiving a fair and speedy hearing? Has a person been a victim of a miscarriage of justice? - It can simply mean that the representative listens to the views of his or her constituents when deciding about a national issue. This can lead to another dilemma. What happens if the elected representative does not personally agree with the majority of constituents? This becomes a matter of conscience that has to be resolved by the individual concerned. This often occurred in the Eu referendum campaign and Brexit debates.

Answer 27

Party representation is the idea that members of a party who are seeking to be elected will campaign based on their party’s manifesto. This means they are their party’s representation and voters understand this. Parties have stated policies set out in a manifesto. It follows that members of a party who are seeking to be elected will campaign on the basis of a party's manifesto. This means that they are representing their party and the voters understand that they are. In the UK candidates for election do generally stick closely to the party manifesto. In some political systems, including the USA, party candidates may vary in their political stance from the party's manifesto or agreed policies. In such case party representation is weaker. All modern democracies are characterized by the existence of political parties. The vast majority of those seeking and winning elections are part of a political party. It is unusual in modern politics to find independent representatives who do not belong to a party.

Answer 28

Functional representation refers to the fact that some elected representatives will represent not only their constituency or region but also a particular occupational or social group. e. g. those who support and are supported by trade unions will often support the cause of groups of workers, others may represent professions like doctors or teachers. e. g. this can also apply to some social groups such as the elderly, those with disabilities, members of the LGBT community or low income groups. Groups like this may also be represented such as by interest groups that may be outside the parliamentary system but functional representation can still flourish within elected legislative bodies.

Answer 29

casual representation represents the whole community in that the beliefs and demands involved are claimed to benefit everyone not just a particular group in society. Typical causes are environmental protection, individual rights and freedoms, greater equality and animal rights However, elected representation often support such causes and principles and much casual representation is done by pressure groups

Answer 30

- social representation - national representation - constituency representation - party representation - functional representation - causal representation

Answer 31

- it is rule by the majority - it is the purest form of democracy. Direct democracy gives decisions legitimacy - a term connected to democracy describing a situation where a decision is legitimate because it has been made democratically or by representatives if they have been elected - The people should respect the decisions to which they have directly consented - The so-called 'wisdom of crowds' suggests that large numbers of people will reach measured decisions - Decisions made by the people are entrenched (protected) and so cannot be easily overturned - can avoid delay and deadlock within the political system - the fact that people are making the decisions gives it legitimacy

Answer 32

- elected representatives may have better judgment than the mass of the people - elected representatives may be more rational and not swayed by emotion - representatives can protect the interests of minorities - elected representatives may be better informed than the general public - representatives can protect minorities against rule by the majority - representatives have more knowledge and judgment than the mass of the people and are less likely to be swayed by emotion - The people should respect decisions made by those with superior judgment and knowledge - People may not understand complex issues while elected representatives may be more understanding and reflective - elected representatives can be sensitive to changing situations

Answer 33

Edmund Burke gave a speech where he explained 'your representation owes you, not his industry only, but his judgment and he betrays instead of serving you if he sacrifices it to your opinion' Burke was saying that if elected he would act with his conscience rather than do what his constituents wanted. These words underpin for many the principles of parliamentary democracy

Answer 34

Burke was a vocal opponent of slavery, but his most influential constituents were merchants whose wealth was based on the slave trade. Burke basically was saying that if elected he would act with his conscience rather than do what his constituents wanted.

Answer 35

The whole administration of representative democracy in the UK is regulated by the electoral commission

Answer 36

The electoral commission ensures that representation is fair, that all those who can vote can register to vote and that parties do not have undue influence through spending. The spending of political parties is now tightly controlled in the UK so that the process is even handed. It can be said that representation in the UK today is fundamentally uncorrupted, fair and honest. Exceptions to this seem to be minor.

Answer 37

- parish or town councils (England and wales only) - Local councils (England and wales only) - Metropolitan authorities (England and Wales only) - Devolved government - National government

Answer 38

The lowest level of government. Only a minority (about 20%) of people come under the jurisdiction of a town council. They deal with local issues such as parks and gardens, parking restrictions, public amenities and small planning issues

Answer 39

Local councils may be also county councils, district councils or metropolitan councils, depending on the area. They deal with local services like education, public transport, roads, social services and public health.

Answer 40

metropolitan authorities is a big city government like london or manchester. These bodies deal with strategic city issues such as policing, public transport, arts funding, environment, large planning issues and emergency services. They normally have an elected mayor and strategic authority.

Answer 41

The governments of wales, scotland and northern ireland. They have varying powers, but all deal with health, social services, education, policing and transport. All three have elected representative assemblies (a parliament in scotland)

Answer 42

This is the jurisdiction of the Uk parliament at Westminster and Uk government

Answer 43

Uk citizens are represented atleast three levels and some as many as four or five levels. It is clear that representation has become increasingly decentralised with the advent of devolution and the delegating of increasing powers to city administrations

Answer 44

Decentralisation is the process of spreading power away from the centre (i.e. central government) both towards devolved governments in the national regions and to the local government

Answer 45

- constituencies - parties - mandate and manifesto - government representation - pressure groups

Answer 46

constituencies are a cornerstone and strength of representative democracy in the UK that every elected representative has a constituency to which they are accountable and whose interests they should pursue. These constituencies may be quite small, such as a parish or local ward or they may be large like a region (represented by MEP's of the European parliament until Britain exited the EU or the London assembly) but the same principle applies to all. - Individuals in the constituency should have their grievances considered that the interests of the whole constituency should be given a hearing in a representative assembly and that the elected representative is regularly made accountable to their constituency.

Answer 47

- European parliamentary region and country - MEPs - Devolved assembly constituency - MSP's or members of the northern and welsh assemblies - Metropolitan authority - Elected mayors - City region - Assembly members - parliamentary constituency - MPs - ward or parish - parish and local councillors (smallest)

Answer 48

Parties play a much more central role in representation than in most democracies. This is because: In the UK a representatives party label tell us a great deal about their beliefs and most members of the party hold a similar view. So UK parties are tighter and more unified groups. While in the USA, representatives may lean to one side, but it is more vague on what their actual beliefs are It is usually the case that one single party governs the UK, the recent exception being 2010-2015 when there was a conservative / liberal democrat coalition. This means that parties essentially who go on to win elections with their manifesto gives them the mandate to pursue their manifesto policies and thus also represents their parties outlook. However, this can be vague with coalition as there is a need for mutual agreement and compromise with both sides. These two factors place parties at the centre of representation in the UK, their role is connected to the doctrine of mandate and manifesto

Answer 49

The electoral mandate is the principle of operating in the UK, whereby a party that has been elected to government has the authority of the electorate to carry out its manifesto commitments.

Answer 50

In the UK a representatives party label tell us a great deal about their beliefs and most members of the party hold a similar view. So UK parties are tighter and more unified groups.

Answer 51

successful representation in the UK depends on the doctrine of mandate and manifesto. The main principle is that each party produces a manifesto in the run up to a general election, This statement of policy intentions is followed by the party's candidates. If that party wins power, it is said to have a mandate to carry out all the policies contained in the manifesto. In other words, it is granted the democratic authority to carry them out. It does not matter if the party only scrapes home in the election by one seat or wins below 50% of the popular vote, it can claim such a mandate. All those who work in the UK political system accept this principle, however flawed it may be. The strength of this doctrine is that everyone, people and politicians, knows where they stand; they know which policies have democratic mandate and which do not. It provides a guide to the voters when they are called on to judge a government at a general election; voters can ask themselves how well and how accurately the government has carried out its mandate. In between elections MPs and peers also call on the government to account on the basis of the electoral mandate

Answer 52

Another aspect of this doctrine is the 'doctors mandate'. This relates to the practice of doctors having to gain permission of a patient to do whatever is necessary to treat them if something goes unexpectedly in an operation. In other words, the patient is asked to trust the doctor to do the right thing while he or she is in no position to grant authority In some senses, the UK government can claim the same kind of mandate. Once a government is elected it can argue that is has the authority to take whatever action is deemed necessary. This may apply to military matters, or when an emergency crisis emerges. Unlike the doctrine of manifesto and mandate, parliament may feel more authorised to challenge such a claim by government if it thinks it is doing the wrong thing. The doctor's mandate in other words is not a blank cheque

Answer 53

- it grants a clear authority to an incoming government and so strengthens its legitimacy - It allows parliament and the voters to judge the performance of government effectively - It demonstrates clearly when a government may be overstepping its elective authority.

Answer 54

- Parties in the Uk today are always elected with less than 50% of the popular vote, so their mandate can be called into question - Those who voted for the governing party do not necessarily support all its manifesto commitments - It is not clear whether the government has a mandate to carry out policies not contained in its last election manifesto

Answer 55

The people as a whole are also represented by the elected government. - it is a mark of a true democracy that the winning party or parties should govern on behalf of the whole community and not just sections of society that typically support it - While it is true that there is a tendency to support some groups more than others this does not alter the fact that the elected government represent the whole nation

Answer 56

pressure groups in the UK (and other democracies) are representative bodies in three ways. - (1) They may behave like political parties in that they may have formal memberships and clear supporting groups and represent their memberships by pushing policies that will benefit them. This applies to sectional pressure groups like the BMA, NFU, AA and taxpayers alliance. This is also described as functional representation - (2) some pressure groups do not have formal memberships. They represent a section of society but do not have a means of determining what demands there are. They represent various groups but not in a very direct way. Examples would be Age UK, Stonewall and the British drivers association, This is also functional representation. Many of these groups are also local, through some have national concerns and take local action. - (3) Pressure groups are engaged in casual representation. Here they represent a set of beliefs, principles or demands which they believe will benefit the whole community. They are promotional groups rather than sectional groups. Examples are friends of the earth (FoE), action on smoking and health (ASH), liberty (human rights campaigners) and Unlock democracy All such pressure groups represent us in un different ways. Whatever we believe, whatever we do and whatever our occupation there is probably a pressure group working in our interests. It is all part of a pluralist democracy and a healthy civil society

Answer 57

A civil society is a collective name for all the various associations, including parties, pressure groups, religions, voluntary organisations, charities etc. to which citizens belong and in which they become active. Civil society acts a vital counterbalance to the power of government

Answer 58

A popular criticism of the Westminster parliament is that it is socially exclusive and therefore unrepresentative of a modern, multicultural Britain but caution should be made with this argument as in the 2017 general election provided the most diverse house of commons ever 8% of MP's are from ethnic minorities, 32% are women, 7% are LGBT. The number of privately educated MPs has fallen to 29% which is the lowest ever. but still much higher than the 7% of the population who are privately educated and the number of MPs now who are middle class are higher than it was in 1945. Critics though say it is misleading to suggest that MP's need to share the same characteristics as a group to represent their interests. E.g. gay marriage legislation was passed in a predominately heterosexual parliament

Answer 59

- the peaceful transition of power - free elections - fair elections - widespread participation in politics - freedom of expression and information - freedom of association - protection of rights and liberties - rule of law - independent judiciary - limited government and constitutionalism

Answer 60

The peaceful transition of power is a feature often taken for granted in democracies but it is not granted in many societies. A peaceful transition of power means that those who lose power by democratic means accept the authority of those who have won. If they do not accept who won, politics breaks down and non-peaceful conflict is likely to take over

Answer 61

free elections are important as elections are the cornerstone of democracy. Without them, it is impossible to imagine democracy working in any meaningful way. Indeed it is probably the first thing we look for when assessing whether a system is democratic or not. - The description of free means that all adults (however that is defined) are free to vote and stand for office This is described as universal suffrage. if significant groups are excluded, (for example women could not vote in any country apart from new Zealand before the twentieth century) the elections are not truly free and the democracy is flawed It also implies that there is a secret ballot. If there is not, votes can be bought and sold and voters can be coerced into voting a certain way

Answer 62

Fair elections are a more difficult criterion as it is a narrow and broad definition. - The narrow definition is that 'fair' means that everyone has a vote and all votes are of equal value. It also suggest that there are safeguards in place to avoid electoral fraud and ballot rigging. The broader definition concerns the electoral system used. Is it fair? This is more difficult to have a clear answer on. Does a fair election mean that the outcome of the election should be proportional i.e seats awarded to parties in proportion to votes cast? Most would say yes, in which case the Uk fails as its electoral system (plurality in single member constituencies, commonly known as FPTP) does not produce a proportional result. Instead it favours some parties over others

Answer 63

Although elections may be certainly free, many would argue that they are not fair elections.

Answer 64

It is important for the health of a democracy that a large proportion of the population can participate in politics. A well informed and active population can prevent a government from becoming too dictatorial.

Answer 65

Orwell illustrated in his novel 1984 how access to independent information is vital if democracy is to survive. The alternative is dictatorship This requirement implies a free media and no government censorship or interference. The development of the internet has helped to allow free access to all

Answer 66

Orwell describes a dystopia in which an all powerful state controls the flow of all information to the population. It even changes accounts of history to suit its purposes

Answer 67

Freedom of association is linked to the freedom of expression in the freedom to form parties or pressure groups, provided their aims and methods are legal. Parties and pressure groups are such vital vehicles for representation that, if they did not exist or were suppressed, democracy would be almost impossible to sustain

Answer 68

protection of rights and liberties is linked to freedom of expression and association which is the idea that the rights and liberties of citizens should be safeguarded. This implies that there should be some kind of enforceable 'Bill of rights' or 'Basic laws' to protect rights and liberties in such a way that the state cannot erode them. The European convention on human rights (ECHR) is just such an example, enforced in 47 European countries as is the US bill of rights. the first ten amendments of America's constitution

Answer 69

Limited government is a feature of democracies with a constitutional safeguard is that the power of the government should have strict limits and these limits will be enforced by the judiciary and the legal system in general. The only exceptions would involve emergency power

Answer 70

A democratic deficit is a collective term for the features of the political system which do not conform to, or fall short of, the normal criteria for a true democracy

Answer 71

The rule of law is the basic principle that all citizens should be treated equally under the law and that the government itself should be subject to the same laws as its citizens. It is directly linked to the idea of limited government

Answer 72

the existence of the rule of law implies one other feature - an independent judiciary It is a key role of the judiciary in a democracy to ensure that the rule of law is upheld. In order for this to happen, the members of the judiciary (the judges) must be independent from government and the whole process of politics In this way, they will ensure that all individuals and groups in society are treated equally under the law and that the government does not exceed its authority It also means that the rights and liberties of citizens are more likely to be upheld

Answer 73

Democracy is at risk if there are not firm limits to the power of government Without these there is a possibility that government will set aside democratic principles for its own purposes. We expect this to happen sometimes in times of war and emergency but not normally. The usual way to set the limits of government power is to define them in constitution which will be enforced by the forces of law. This is known as constitutionalism

Answer 74

The usual way to set the limits of government power is to define them in constitution which will be enforced by the forces of law. This is known as constitutionalism

Answer 75

- The FPTP electoral system for general elections produces disproportional results, renders many votes wasted and elects governments with a relatively small proportion of the popular vote. It discriminates against small parties with dispersed support. The house of lords has considerable influence but is an unelected body The sovereignty of parliament, in theory, gives unlimited potential power to government The powers of the prime minister are largely based on the authority of the unelected monarch The European convention on human rights is not binding on parliament, so individual rights and liberties remain under threat

Answer 76

A description of a society or political system where power and influence are concentrated in the hands of a few people and organisations

Answer 77

* The people have influence, either direct or indirect, over political decisions. * Government and all elected bodies or individuals are made accountable to the people. * Government should operate within the rule of law, whereby all are equal under the law and government itself is subject to the same laws as the people. * Elections should be held regularly, be free and fair, and there should be universal adult suffrage. * People should be free to form political parties and other associations and to stand for elective office. * The transition of power from one government to the next must be peaceful. * The people should have access to independent information and opinion. * The rights and freedoms of the people should be respected by government.

Answer 78

The characteristics of direct democracies are: • The people make key decisions themselves. * Only in classical Greece has a whole system been described as direct democracy. * In its modern form, direct democracy uses initiatives and referendums. * The UK is a representative democracy that uses direct democracy to resolve constitutional issues.

Answer 79

A direct democracy is a system where the people make all the key decisions themselves. Such systems operated in classical Greece but are now rare and largely confined to small scale communities. Referendums are really only examples of a direct democratic method, sometimes used within representative democracies.

Answer 80

A political system based on the principle that the citizens elect representatives who make decisions on their behalf and are accountable to them. It can also refer to representation by political parties and by pressure groups.

Answer 81

* The people elect representatives to make political decisions on their behalf. * Regular elections are a key feature * The system is characterised by representative assemblies such as parliaments, assemblies and councils. * A government is elected to make proposals and arrange for their implementation. * Government and elected representatives are accountable to the people. * Parties campaign to be able to represent the people in government. * Pressure groups operate, representing sections of society and various causes from outside the political system.

Answer 82

* Power and influence are widely dispersed among the people and among sections of society- power is not excessively concentrated in a few hands. * There is tolerance, both legal and cultural, of a wide range of minorities, political beliefs, religions, lifestyles and cultures. * Political parties are free to operate and campaign and there are many parties which citizens may choose to support. * Pressure groups and campaign groups are tolerated and allowed to operate freely. * There is a range of sources of independent information, news and opinion available to the people without interference by the state

Answer 83

– a description of a political system and/or society where there is widespread tolerance of different groups and lifestyles, where freedom of expression and association are respected, where many parties and pressure groups may operate and where there are independent media. The term also implies that power is dispersed and not concentrated.

Answer 84

positives - the UK is remarkably conflict free negatives - none

Answer 85

positives - virtually everyone over the age of 18 can vote. There is little electoral fraud and there are strong legal safeguards negatives - the house of lords is not elected at all, nor is the head of state (monarch)

Answer 86

positives - There are proportional systems in Scotland, wales and Northern Ireland, and previously for European parliamentary elections negative - The FPTP system for general elections leads to disproportionate results and many wasted votes. Government are elected on a modest proportion of the popular vote.

Answer 87

positives - There is extensive membership of pressure groups, which are free and active. There is also a growing level of participation in e-democracy negatives - despite a small increase in turnout in the 2017 general election and an increase in party membership, both voter turnout and party activism remain rather low compared with the past

Answer 88

positives - the press and broadcast media are free of government interference. Broadcast media maintain political neutrality. there is free access to the internet. negatives - much ownership of the press is in hands of few large, powerful companies such as news international

Answer 89

positives - there are no restrictions on legal organisations. The UK is a pluralist society that tolerates many different groups, beliefs, lifestyles, religions and political movement. Negative - some associations are banned but this is because they are seen as based on terrorism or racial hatred.

Answer 90

positives - this is strong in the UK. The country is signed up to the European convention on Human rights (ECHR) and the courts enforce it. The house of lords protect rights as does the judiciary. negatives - Parliament is sovereign, which means rights are at the mercy of a government with a strong majority in the house of commons. The ECHR is not binding on the UK parliament.

Answer 91

positives - this is upheld strictly by the judiciary. The right to judicial review underpins this. The judiciary is independent and non-political. negatives - none

Answer 92

positives - parliament and the courts ensure the government acts within the law negatives - there is no codified constitution and the limits to government power are vague. Parliamentary sovereignty means the government's powers could be increased without a constitutional safeguard. The prerogative powers of the prime minister are extensive and arbitrary.

Answer 93

- standing for public office - active party membership - active pressure group membership - passive party membership - digital activists - voting

Answer 94

Standing for public office is the most intensive form of political participation. Many councillors are part-time, but they do have to give up a great deal of their lives to attending meetings, campaigning, meeting constituents, reading information, and making decisions. Full-time politicians have to immerse themselves in the job. Even those who stand for office unsuccessfully have to devote a considerable amount of time and effort in trying to get elected

Answer 95

Many people join political parties but only a minority of these are active members called activists Activists are fully engaged with the party they support. This may mean attending local meetings of the party, voting for officers, campaigning in the community and canvasing at election time to try to ensure as many supporters vote as possible

Answer 96

Like party activists, these pressure group supporters may be full members, helping to raise both money and awareness of the cause they support. Often it means attending or even organizing demonstrations and other forms of direct actions

Answer 97

Passive party membership means being enough of a supporter to join the party but take relative little part. Such members often confine their activities to help at election time

Answer 98

The growth of social media and the internet has to led to digital activists, which is becoming a more common form of participation. Digital activism requires only that the individual should take part in campaigns and movements that happen on the internet. Digital participation has made participation easy without leaving your home. It normally involves activities such as e-petitions, joining social media campaigns, expressing support for a cause on social media etc Also, media sites such as change.org and 38 degrees have greatly facilitated such activity.

Answer 99

It normally involves activities such as e-petitions, joining social media campaigns, expressing support for a cause on social media etc Also, media sites such as change.org and 38 degrees have greatly facilitated such activity.

Answer 100

Voting is the last fundamental and yet the least taxing form of political participation. It has become especially convenient with the growing use of postal voting. Even when local, regional and national elections, plus referendums most citizens only have to vote once a year at most

Answer 101

- political parties - voting - e-petitions and e-democracy - pressure groups - social media and the internet

Answer 102

If citizens are passive and do not concern themselves with politics, the system becomes open to the abuse of power

Answer 103

Popular political participation helps to call decision makers to account and to ensure they carry out their representative functions

Answer 104

There is lots of evidence that there has been a decline in party activism in the Uk. As in the 1940s and 50s membership of all political parties rose to over 3 million, mostly this being the conservatives. As well as this, if you include trade union members that were affiliated to the labour party, this figure was several million higher. In comparison, to today it is safe to say that there has been a steady, accelerating decline since the rise seen in 1940s and 50s. Some commentators claim though that many party members in the past were politically active, but they did give an indication of mass engagement with politics at some level.

Answer 105

It is clear that parties are no longer the main vehicle by which most people wish to participate in politics. However there are some exceptions, as there was surge in labour party membership in 2015, as when under new rules established by the then leader Ed Miliband, it was possible to join the party for just three pounds. This was to enable a wider section of labour supporters to vote in leadership contests. A largely young, new cohort in the labour party elected Jeremy Corbyn and changed the whole direction of the party (to a more radical left). This was political activism of a fundamental kind, but it was possibly only a temporary phenomenon

Answer 106

- following the 2014 referendum on Scottish independence, membership of the Scottish national party (SNP) surged, and it claimed to have over 100,000 members in a population of just 5 million - There was an increase in membership of UKIP in the run up to the 2015 general election. Nearly 50,000 had signed up to the party by the time of the election, making UKIP the fourth largest party by the time of the election in terms of membership. - After the 2015 election and the run up to the 2017 general election membership of the green party and liberal democrats also rose

Answer 107

The act of voting, in an election or a referendum is the least intensive form of participation and also the most infrequent but is the most important for most citizens

Answer 108

The level of turnout is what proportion of registered voters actually do vote. The level of turnout is a good indicator of participation and engagement with politics

Answer 109

- Should London have an elected mayor? (1998) - Devolution to Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland (1997/8) - The introduction of the AV electoral system (2011) - Scottish independence (2014) - British membership of EU (2016)

Answer 110

The turnout was 34.1 % for whether London should have an elected mayor. despite there being 5 million people registered to vote, only 1,735,350 actually voted.

Answer 111

The turnout was 60.4 %, 50.1%, 81.0%

Answer 112

The turnout was 42.2%

Answer 113

The turnout was 84.6% - very high

Answer 114

The turnout was 72.2%

Answer 115

Turnouts have varied from 34.1% concerning local government in London to 84.6% in the Scottish independence referendum.

Answer 116

Turnout is a reflection of how important voters consider an issue to be

Answer 117

Voters are becoming more used to having a say on a single issue and it is noteworthy that turnout is the most crucial referendums as the EU membership and Scottish independence has higher turnouts than general elections

Answer 118

Switzerland where referendums are usually the norm and common, they have turnouts usually between 40% to 60%

Answer 119

High turnouts may occur because there is more than one question on the ballot at a time so interest may be higher

Answer 120

E-democracy is a name used to describe the growing tendency for democracy to be carried out online in the form of e-petitions and other online campaigns

Answer 121

Digital democracy refers to e-petitions and e-democracy. E-petitions are one of the most fastest growing forms of participation and the term of e-democracy is now commonly used. Such referendums are part of wider spread of digital democracy, where campaign groups use social media and the internet promote their causes

Answer 122

E-petitions are one of the most fastest growing forms of participation and the term of e-democracy is now commonly used. Such referendums are part of wider spread of digital democracy, where campaign groups use social media and the internet promote their causes

Answer 123

E-petitions have the advantage of requiring little effort and it is immediately apparent how much support a particular issue may have. Combined with the use of social media, they can build interest in an issue rapidly. causing a bandwagon effect.

Answer 124

E-petitions are often criticised as a form of participation as it requires so little effort to take part and there is no guarantee that participants know about the issue

Answer 125

2007 - against a plan to introduce charges on the road idea of the labour government (Gordon Brown) - the government dropped the plan 2011 - calling for the release on all documents relating to the Hillsborough football disaster of 1989 - paper were released after parliamentary debate and a new inquest launched 2016 - Second EU referendum - a parliamentary debate was held but second referendum was not allowed

Answer 126

membership and activism in political parties have been replaced by participation in pressure groups

Answer 127

membership and activism in political parties have been replaced by participation in pressure groups. - In terms of sectional groups, which represent specific sections of the community, this is nothing new. Many millions of people and organisations have formed themselves into pressure groups - Trade unions and professional associations have been particularly prominent in recent years. For many participation may be little but some of these activists in these organisations, help with political campaigning in what type of policies they advocate for e.g left-wing, centrist, right-wing

Answer 128

Promotional groups pursue a particular political issue or cause. Rather than relying on mass memberships, these groups seek mass activism, in other words rely on mass support rather than membership. This kind of representation is growing in the UK. The range and activities of pressure groups will be exploded in a few weeks time.

Answer 129

The importance of blogging, tweeting and general social media campaigning is growing which has encouraged more participation in the political process. A campaign on a current issue can be mounted in just a few hours or days. - Information about injustices or demands can have immediate action over some kind of social evil can circulate quickly, putting pressure on decision makers and elected representatives - sites such as change.org and 38 degrees can facilitate these campaigns or movements

Answer 130

- Owen Patterson - sleaze - lobbying in the house of commons - Geoffrey Cox - living on the british virgin islands despite being an MP - conflict of interest - Peter Viggers - misused MPs expenses fund a duck house on his estate - 2009 MPs collectively were held up to contempt and ridicule over claims on misusing their expenses - Former Labour Minister - Stephen Byers was secretly filmed telling a lobbying firm he was like a 'cab for hire' As well as this, 2016 Ipsos MORI recorded that the least trusted profession in the UK was politician with 21% of the population believing politicians could be relied on to tell the truth

Answer 131

Neil Kinnock became an MP and his father told him ' Remember Neil, MP stands not just for Member of Parliament but Man of Principle'

Answer 132

- It has been suggested that a general failure to engage people in politics means that voters are so happy they are 'hapathetic' - which is a dangerous argument because it suggests the government should be most satisfied with zero electoral turnout, which would give it no mandate to govern - Critics of the UK system of representative democracy argue that there is so much political disengagement that radical steps need to be taken to re-inspire enthusiasm for the democratic process - Trust in politicians has declined and turnout in elections is lower than it has ever been. Some argue that new ways need to be found to make politics relevant to the people and make politicians responsive to the public

Answer 133

Legitimacy refers to the legitimate authority means power that has been legally acquired and is exercised according to the rule of law. A dictator can claim power but not legitimate power

Answer 134

The 2017 general election was highly adversarial but only 68.7 % of the public voted. In comparison, the general election of 1992 77.7% voted. This means that since there has been a decrease in the significant number of the population voting as people are not choosing not to vote. This means that the legitimacy that elected politicians can claim is significantly reduced

Answer 135

Supporters of direct democracy argue that it engages the public and makes politicians more responsive to what people really think. This creates a closer connection between the public and political decision making.

Answer 136

Critics of direct democracy respond that the general public are not always sufficiently well informed to make specific political decisions and that direct democracy gives too much influence to political activists who can be more extreme in their political views than the average voter. The way in which the 2016 EU referendum created conflict between the wishes of a majority of the public and those of parliament also suggests that direct democracy can have a destabilizing effect on the political process

Answer 137

A point at which the public has become disengaged from politics and voting levels have fallen so low that the legitimacy of elected governments can be questioned

Answer 138

- 1964 - Harold Wilson's dynamic campaign aimed at the ending of '13 wasted years' of conservative rule - February 1974 - the 'who governs Britain?' crisis general election called by Edward Heath - 1979 Margaret Thatcher challenging James Callaghan in the wake of the 'winter of discontent' - 1992 - John Major's soap box campaign against Labour's Neil Kinnock

Answer 139

1975 EEC referendum - 64.6% | 2016 EU referendum - 72.2%

Answer 140

The membership of Uk political parties has significantly lowered since the 1950s. However, it does not indicate a participation crisis, since floating voters are increasingly unlikely to fully identity with one party and therefore have little motivation to join one. The labour party increased its memberships from 190,000 to 55,200 between 2014 and 2018. This was brought about by 'one member, one vote' idea from former leader ED miliband and grassroots enthusiasm for the radical alternative offered by jeremy corbyn. The surge in party membership has been helped by the rise of Momentum, a socialist movement whose members must be members of the labour party. The membership of pressure groups remain high and success of websites such as 38 degrees show how the public may be choosing to participate in politics in different ways

Answer 141

Labour party

Answer 142

When a democracy is not operating effectively because there is a lack of accountability among political bodies and not all citizens can claim equal influence over political decision making

Answer 143

Further devolution can encourage greater democratic participation as devolution can lead to more power being devolved from west minister and thereby giving people greater self determination. - The Scottish parliament, the national assembly for wales and elected mayors show how decision making can be brought closer to the public.

Answer 144

Turnout in elections for devolved assemblies is significantly lower than for the Westminster parliament and has declined since they were established - suggests that providing another layer of government is not that effective as a way of engaging the public There is also little enthusiasm for an English Parliament, and when in 2004 voters in the north east were given the opportunity for their own assembly 78% voted against it Elected mayors have similarly not succeeded in generating much enthusiasm from the electorate, and police and crime commissioners were elected in 2016 with, on average, a turnout of 25% Creating further levels of government is not an instant solution to encouraging greater voter participation. Indeed, some political commentators have even suggested that giving the public more voting opportunities can discourage participation by leading to democratic overload

Answer 145

The recall of MPs Act 2015 enables voters to trigger a by-election if 10% of them sign a petition. However, the circumstances when this can happen - an MP needs to have sentenced to prison or suspended from the house of commons for at least 21 days - are quite extreme Broadening the criteria on which the power of recall could be demanded would giver constituents considerably more power and lead to more political participation In the USA, 18 states have recall provisions and in 2003 the governor of California, Gary Davis, was recalled over his failure to balance the budget.

Answer 146

Critics of further reform point out that it would make MP's more like delegates. So limiting the Burkean principle of freedom of conscience. It would also make governments with slim majorities more likely to fail

Answer 147

The house of lords is unelected and unaccountable. Its membership is selected through political patronage. When he left office in 2015 David Cameron appointed 13 peers from among his political allies. Making the lords an elected chamber would mean that Westminster was fully democratically accountable.

Answer 148

There is danger that an elected lords could become a rival to the commons potentially creating constitutional gridlock. There is also concerns about low electoral turnout, exchanging the expertise of the lords for another elected chamber is controversial

Answer 149

Supporters of digital democracy would argue that facilitating voting and encouraging electronic political discussion will encourage greater political engagement and higher turnout

Answer 150

- voting on your mobile phone at your convenience would be likely to encourage more voting but it would also mean that voting was no longer carried out in secret and so the possibility of voter manipulation would increase. - Allegations of cyber interreference in Western elections by Russia indicates that electronic voting is more open to fraud than traditional voting - The way in which politicians use twitter can encourage populist sloganeering - The standard of debate on social media indicates that activists can use this as much to bully as to engage in political debate

Answer 151

The introductions of electronic petitions has contributed to UK democracy by giving the public more control over what is discussed in parliament. E-petitions have led to important debates- e.g the legalisation of cannabis,, the extension of meningitis B vaccination for all children. Make e-petitions more powerful, by making them trigger a parliamentary vote which would make parliament more accountable

Answer 152

It cannot prevent westminister from doing in unconstitutional and impractical debates e.g some of the most popular e-petitions called for the banning of donald trump from the UK, which is not parliament's right since the responsibility lies with the home secretary - in 2019 an e-petition called on the uk to stay in the EU gathered over 6m signatures, making it the most popular e-petition since the process was introduced. This clearly demonstrated to parliament how controversial the issue of Brexit remained

Answer 153

- The replacement of the FPTP with a proportional form of election would create a fairer connection between the votes a party receives and its representation in parliament. Critics of the FPTP system claim that it discourages voting because it limits voters choices by over-rewarding the Labour and the Conservative parties, ensuring that it is much more difficult for other parties to gain representation By making votes count more, critics argue 'wasted votes' and 'safe seats' would be eliminated and voters have a greater incentive to vote

Answer 154

Although many criticise the FPTP system, in 2011 67.9% of the electorate voted in favour of not replacing FPTP with the additional vote (AV) Proportional representation would make coalition governments more likely, making it more difficult for political parties to fulfil their manifesto commitments The claim that FPTP is no longer appropriate because the UK is becoming a multiparty democracy is challenged by the fact that in the 2017 general election the highest percentage of the electorate voted conservative or labour than at any time since 1970

Answer 155

The franchise refers to the ‘right to vote’. It has been fought over for many centuries, but the UK currently enjoys ‘universal adult suffrage’. Both franchise and suffrage essentially mean the same thing. In modern democracies suffrage is extended to all adults, with no groups excluded. It is unusual in a democracy for any group to be excluded from voting, so much so that a system which does exclude some or all citizens from voting cannot be described as democratic.

Answer 156

- Everyone over the age of 18 has the right to vote in elections, save for a limited few such as convicted prisoners, the certified insane and members of the royal family. - No groups are discriminated against in electoral law - It is the responsibility of each individual to register to vote.

Answer 157

- To combat low turnouts some advocate compulsory voting - Reducing the voting age to 16 has been proposed and was temporarily implemented in the 2014 referendum on Scottish independence. - Online voting has been suggested, although there are problems with security. - Weekend voting may make voting easier and increase opportunities to do so.

Answer 158

The following are forms of political participation: - Voting in elections - Joining a political party - Becoming an active member of a party - Standing for election to office - Joining a pressure group - Becoming active in a pressure group - Taking part in a political campaign online or on the ground - Signing a petition or e-petition

Answer 159

- low turnout at elections, especially amongst the young - political apathy - failing party membership - disillusionment with politicians and political parties - Shallow engagement with political issues ('slactivity') as a result of social media and online campaigns

Answer 160

- compulsory voting, online voting, more political education in schools - increased use of referendums to engage more people in political debate - electoral reform making parties electable, reduce party subscriptions (as labour did in 2015) - A change in the electoral system might encourage support for smaller parties and independent candidates - More political education and politicians encouraging direct consultation with citizens

Answer 161

- Disillusionment with political parties, especially amongst younger people, and a falling commitment to parties (‘partisan dealignment’) - People being more concerned with single issues than with broad policies - A lack of distinction between the parties since the 1990s - The electoral system results in large numbers of wasted votes (for smaller parties and in safe seats) and votes of unequal value (marginal versus safe seats). It also results in disproportional results. - With the emergence of referendums, voters prefer direct democracy

Answer 162

THE FRANCHISE ALSO KNOWN AS SUFFRAGE: The term franchise essentially means the same as suffrage- that is the right to vote. The franchise has been gradually extended in the UK since 1832 to include all adults over 18 (over 16 in Scotland), known as universal adult suffrage, with a few exceptions such as prisoners currently serving a sentence, members of the House of Lords and the mentally incapacitated

Answer 163

The term ‘suffrage’ refers to the right to vote in free elections. A second term is related to this and this is the ‘franchise’. The UK has always led the world in widening the franchise and in the establishment of universal adult suffrage.

Answer 164

The development of Britain as a democratic state can be traced back far into history. Some historians claim that the Anglo Saxon witan, an assembly of aristocrats who advised the ruler, represented a rudimentary form of democracy. More usually the origins of democracy are associated with King John (1199-1216) being forced by his barons to sign Magna Carta (1215). Although the barons were mostly interested in protecting their own powers from the King, they also inserted a number of clauses to protect the rights of all freeborn Englishmen from the arbitrary rule of the monarch.

Answer 165

There are three iconic clauses in Magna Carta:- 'In future no official shall place a man on trial upon his own unsupported statement, without producing credible witnesses to the truth of it’ (Paragraph 38) ‘No free man shall be seized or imprisoned, or stripped of his rights or possessions, or outlawed or exiled, or deprived of his standing in any other way, nor will we proceed with force against him, or send others to do so, except by the lawful judgement of his equals or by the law of the land’ (Paragraph 39) ‘To no one will we sell, to no one deny or delay right or justice’ (Paragraph 40)

Answer 166

Throughout the medieval period, Parliament developed the right to grant money to the Crown since it represented the nation’s property holders, and Henry VIII (1509-47) used Parliament to provide his takeover of the English Church with legal validity. It was not until the early 17th Century that Parliament began to assert the right to protect the liberties of the English people against the increasingly autocratic Stuart monarchy. Edward Coke, the chief justice of James I (1603-25) laid down in the Petition of Right (1628) the principle that the Crown is not above the law, and during the English Civil War Parliament asserted its right to be the primary lawmaker against Charles I’s belief in the ‘divine right’ of the King to rule alone. The violence and instability of the Civil War unleashed new democratic movements such as the Levellers, who stated that all men had the same right to elect their government, but such radical ideas were stamped out during the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell (1653-58), who proved almost as unwilling as Charles I to work with Parliament.

Answer 167

In 1647 during what has become known as the Putney Debates, members of the New Model Army unsuccessfully put forward to Cromwell and the military command the case for manhood suffrage. Socialist politicians, in particular, regard these debates as a dramatic moment in the struggle for democracy ‘For really I think that the poorest he that is in England hath a life to live, as the greatest he; and therefore truly, Sir, I think it is clear, that every Man that is to live under a Government ought first by his own Consent to put himself under that Government; and I do think that the poorest man in England is not all bound in a strict sense to that Government that he hath not had a voice to Himself under’ Colonel Thomas Rainsborough during the Putney Debates, 1647

Answer 168

Although Charles II was offered the Crown at the Restoration in 1660, his brother James II was suspected of trying to rule as a tyrant. In the Glorious Revolution of 1688, James was overthrown and Parliament invited William of Orange to become King of England. William III’s agreement that he would cooperate with Parliament on the Bill of Rights (1689) is a key moment in the development of Britain’s constitutional monarchy. But Parliament remained the preserve of the rich and powerful and it was not until the 19th Century that a number of acts of parliamentary reform gradually opened up the franchise. The Reform Act of 1832 enfranchised some members of the middle classes, while the Reform Acts of 1867 and 1884 increasingly opened the vote to working class householders in the boroughs and then the counties.

Answer 169

In 1872 the Ballot Act made voting in secret compulsory, so protecting a citizens’ right to vote in any way they wished. The Reform Acts of the 19th Century had all been based on the principle that the right to vote depended on the ownership of property. Property owners had a stake in society and had thus earned the right to vote. The principle of ‘one person, one vote’ was alien to these reformers and by the beginning of the 20th Century 40% of adults could still not vote, as well as all women.

Answer 170

The battles for suffrage in the UK are now largely over (although some disagree- see the timeline sheet). The women’s suffrage movement in the early part of the 20th century was the last great struggle, with many women willing to go to prison following a campaign of civil disobedience. One woman, Emily Davison, lost her life when she fell under the king’s racehorse in the Derby in 1913, trying to attach a suffragette banner. Once women had equal voting rights after 1928, the attention of the women’s movement turned to campaigning for more being adopted as candidates for public office. The Labour Party in particular has made arrangements to ensure fair gender representation and the SNP has had great success in recruiting more successful candidates for office.

Answer 171

SUFFRAGETTE Campaigners in the early part of the twentieth century advocating votes for women, who used both parliamentary lobbying and civil disobedience as their methods.

Answer 172

Political reform has often been driven by popular pressure. In 1897 the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS), also known as the suffragists, was established by Millicent Fawcett to lobby Parliament to extend the franchise to women. The efforts of the suffragists were not sufficient for more militant women and in 1903 Emmeline Pankhurst established the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) under the slogan ‘deeds not words’. The suffragettes as they were known engaged in more disruptive and even violent actions in order to draw attention to their cause. When imprisoned some went on hunger strike.

Answer 173

At the outbreak of WW1 in 1914, the suffragettes suspended their activities. The sacrifices made by men and women in the First World War changed the political atmosphere. Women did vital war work in factories, and 80,000 served as non combatants in the armed forces. In 1916 male conscription was introduced and almost 750,000 men were killed in combat. In 1918 in recognition of this, the Representation of the People Act allowed all men aged 21 and over, and women aged 30 and over who fulfilled property qualifications to vote in general elections. In 1928 a further Representation of the People Act extended the vote to men and women aged 21 and over, establishing universal suffrage.

Answer 174

There is no doubt that the issue of female suffrage has been the most important development in suffrage since the Great Reform Act of 1832. It demonstrated the power of concerted action by a united social movement and it had the effect of galvanizing the woman’s movement, which later became known as feminism. Women’s suffrage also led the way in creating gender equality in a host of other fields.

Answer 175

In 1969 a Third representation of the People Act lowered the voting age from 21 to 18. This was in recognition of the way in which the opportunities and responsibilities of young people had developed. The extension of university education, greater sexual freedom provided by easier access to contraception, and the increased earning potential of young people all combined to make lowering the voting age to 18 relatively uncontroversial

Answer 176

Issues remain to be resolved with suffrage. It is not clear for example, which UK citizens living abroad will be allowed to vote at home after the UK leaves the EU. Therefore there are sections of society that are denied the vote. There has been a long running battle between the UK Parliament and the European Court of Human Rights over whether prisoners should have the right to vote. But these are minor, short term issues, compared to other franchise concerns. There are three remaining main issues regarding voting in the UK. These are votes at 16, compulsory voting and improving registration to vote and innovations in methods of voting. These are largely a response to low turnouts at elections.

Answer 177

Support for lowering the voting age to 16 has increased significantly in recent years. The Votes at 16 Coalition was established in 2003 to bring together groups like the National Union of Students and British Youth Council to campaign for lowering the voting age. In the 2014 Scottish independence referendum 16 and 17 year olds were allowed to vote. In 2015 the Scottish Parliament then legislated to give 16 and 17 year olds the vote in Scottish local and parliamentary elections. The Votes at 16 Coalition hopes that the rapidity of these developments will create an unstoppable momentum for change.

Answer 178

The tactics of the Votes at 16 Coalition are twofold:- In order to generate mass enthusiasm for reducing the voting age to 16 it is important to win as much positive publicity as possible. Given how much of their ideas young people now derive from social media, Votes at 16 has established a major presence on the internet through the use of Twitter, Facebook, and #vote16. It also encourages school and college debates and its memorable slogan ‘engage, empower, inspire’, provides the movement with a coherent and powerful message of change. The support of MPs is vital in winning parliamentary support for changes to the law. In 2017 and 2018, a Private Member’s Bill to reduce the voting age to 16 failed in the House of Commons and so success depends on creating as much cross party support as possible for change. The Votes at 16 website names all MPs and Lords who support the campaign in order to maintain high profile momentum for change. Although 16 & 17 year olds in Scotland were given the vote after 2014, the issue has not been settled in the UK overall. It remains a balanced argument. It seems inevitable that 16 and 17 year olds will one day be given the right to vote. However, this may have to wait until a party comes to power that feels it will benefit from younger people having the vote. This is more likely to be a radical party of the left

Answer 179

In the UK, prisoners are not entitled to vote. This is because they are regraded as having renounced the rights of citizenship for the duration of the time that they are incarcerated. The question of whether prisoners are being denied a fundamental human right gained some publicity in two cases brought by John Hirst against the British Government. Hirst’s claim that although he was in prison he should be allowed to vote, was dismissed by the courts in 2001, but in 2004 the European Courts of Human Rights declared that the blanket ban on prisoner voting was contrary to Article 3 of the First Protocol of the European Convention of Human Rights, which ‘provides for the right to elections performed by secret ballot, that are also free and that occur at regular intervals’. The British government was therefore in defiance of the European Convention on Human Rights. Pressure groups such as Liberty and the Howard League for Penal Reform support prisoner voting. However, unlike voting at 16, there has been very little public pressure for a change in this law. When the issue was debated in the House of Commons in 2011 it gained cross party condemnation, with 234 MPs against allowing prisoners the vote and only 22 supporting it. The first case raised significant issues concerning the extent to which the British Government can act in defiance of the European Court of Human Rights. Since 2004 this had been a constant source of friction with the courts and so in 2017 the government offered to allow small numbers of prisoners on day release the right to vote in order to solve the problem. This concession generated little public interest, which suggests that the voting rights of prisoners is unlikely to produce the sort of public enthusiasm necessary for the law to be changed.

Answer 180

Although voting is optional in the UK, 22 nation states have introduced some sort of compulsory voting to ensure voting rates are as high as possible. The first country to introduce compulsory voting was Belgium, in 1892. It is an accepted part of Belgian life and in the 2014 federal elections turnout was 89%. Australia has required citizens to vote in national elections since 1924. In its 2016 federal election 91% of those eligible voted. Supporters of compulsory voting argue that because it ensures that such a high percentage of the electorate engage in the democratic process the outcome has enhanced legitimacy. In recent years voting has significantly decreased in many liberal democracies, so compulsory voting would address this pressing problem.

Answer 181

However, compulsory voting is also highly controversial since critics claim that it gives the state too much power to coerce its citizens. Some radical campaigners like the comedian Russell Brand have argued that the decision not to engage at any level with the voting process can be a very powerful political act of disapproval. In the 2017 French Presidential run off there was no Socialist candidate, so the decision not to note for Emmanuel Macron or Marine Le Pen could have been an informed political decision. In 2015 David Winnick, Labour MP for Walsall until 2017, raised the need for compulsory voting in the House of Commons. Winnick said ‘If we want our democracy to flourish, common sense dictates we should do what we can to get far more people to participate in elections than do at the moment’. Just 44% of 18-24 year olds voted at the 2010 general election so there seemed to provide a powerful case for reform. However according to Ipsos MORI in the 2017 general election 64% of this age group voted. This is the highest turnout by young people since 1992 and suggests that if politicians provide radical enough alternatives people will be more likely to vote. But this large increase is still 25% below national voting in Australia.

Answer 182

Compulsory voting exists in about a dozen countries, though in many it is possible to ‘opt out’ of voting before the election and so avoid a fine. In some countries the government does not enforce compulsory voting, though it exists in law. In Australia, compulsory voting is enforced and a significant fine can be levied. Voters there don’t have to vote for any candidate(s) but must attend the polling booth and mark a ballot paper in some way. Some ‘spoil’ their ballot to avoid a fine. The turnout in Australia is unsurprisingly above 90% - Belgium is the same. Italy made voting compulsory until 1998, when turnout was usually close to 90% but since voting is no longer compulsory turnout has fallen, e.g. 75% in 2013. Compulsory voting therefore has a dramatic effect on turnout. The relatively low turnouts in the UK especially at local and regional elections have led to calls for compulsory voting.

Answer 183

Attention tends to fall on younger voters in the UK because they typically vote in smaller numbers than older people. Turnout figures at UK general elections among the 18-24 age group are typically 35% while over 80% of the over 60s tend to vote. This may result in governments favouring older voters against the young when making policies. However civil rights campaigners are against compulsory voting, while the Conservative Party is unlikely to support it as the young tend to be more left wing than older people, so forcing the young to vote would favour Labour and other left of centre parties.

Answer 184

In 2014 the system for registering to vote in the UK was changed. Before then there was household registration which meant that one householder could register anyone living in the property on their behalf. Even those temporarily away from home, such as students, could still vote. This was replaced by individual voter registration, which meant that each individual was responsible for registering themselves at whatever address they considered to be permanent. It is estimated that about 1 million voters lost their right to vote in 2015 because their household registration was not transferred to individual registration. The main concern here is that most of the ‘missing voters’ were students and young people who do not have a permanent address. Attention has therefore shifted from encouraging such people to vote to encouraging them to register in the first place. ' Registration in the US is more of an issue than the UK. This is because members of ethnic minorities in the USA typically do not register in as large numbers as the white population. In the UK it is hoped that the new system will settle down and with easier online registration, the imbalance will correct itself. At the same time there have been proposals to introduce online voting or coting at post offices and even supermarkets. Online voting is the most popular proposal not least because we are becoming increasingly used to taking part in online surveys and polls or e-petitions, giving rise the term ‘clickocracy’. Voting in elections would be an extension of such practices. It is hoped that the young in particular will be encouraged to register and then vote online. Weekend voting has also been proposed. The main problem with such proposals is that they may allow in electoral fraud.

Answer 185

Pluralist democracy- In a pluralist democracy political influence is dispersed among a wide variety of elected and non-elected bodies, ensuring that there is fair and transparent competition between rival groups for influence.

Answer 186

The UK is a pluralist democracy, which means political power and influence is widely distributed so that different groups can compete to influence the government in their favour. As well as voting in elections, members of the public can participate in the political process by supporting pressure groups or becoming involved in online campaigns. Think tanks, corporations, lobbying firms, professional bodies and religious movements can also put pressure on the government to act in a certain way, although they are not referred to as pressure groups

Answer 187

They can be defined as an association whose aim is to influence policy making at local, regional, national or European level without actually seeking power. Some collective organisations such as large companies and multinationals, media organisations, academic bodies and trade are not strictly speaking pressure groups, but they are so large and have such vested interests in political outcomes that they behave as though they were pressure groups. They can be treated and evaluated in the same way as pressure groups.

Answer 188

Pressure groups have a variety of aims and employ different methods but they all have in common a desire to influence government without becoming government itself. If a pressure group decides to exercise power it becomes a political party. This happened when the trade union movement helped to form the Labour Party in the early twentieth century, when the Ecology Party became the Green Party in 1990 and when the UK Independence Party began putting up candidates at parliamentary elections after 1993.

Answer 189

FUNCTIONS OF PRESSURE GROUPS: To represent and promote the interests of certain sections of the community who feel they are not fully represented by parties and Parliament To protect the interests of minority groups To promote certain causes that have not been adequately taken up by political parties To inform and educate the public about key political issues To call government to account over its performance in a particular area of policy On occasions to pass key information to government to inform and influence policy To give opportunities to citizens to participate in politics other than through party membership or voting

Answer 190

Pressure groups are a vital part of civil society, ensuring an active and informed citizenry and so helping to ensure that government is not able to become over powerful. Without an active and effective civil society, governments are able to control the lives and the ideas of citizens excessively. Parties and Parliament also perform this function but pressure groups are a vital reinforcement.

Answer 191

Promotional Group- An association whose goal is to promote a particular cause or set of beliefs or values. Such groups seek to promote favourable legislation, prevent unfavourable legislation or simply bring an issue onto the political agenda.

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Sectional Group- An association which has an identifiable membership or supporting group. Such groups represent a section of society and are mainly concerned with their interests.

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SECTIONAL/INTEREST PRESSURE GROUPS: Sectional pressure groups represent the interests of a particular group within society. For example, the Muslim council of Britain specifically represents the interests of British Muslims and the National Union of Students (NUS) represents the interests of students. They therefore lobby government on behalf of these clearly defined groups

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INSIDER PRESSURE GROUP: An insider pressure group has a privileged access to government decision making. The British Medial Association (BMA) represents the interests of doctors and so possesses specialist information which governments wish to consult. The Howard League for Penal Reform is an impartial organisation which can supply the Home Office with important information concerning prisons, policing and youth crime

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CAUSE/PROMOTIONAL PRESSURE GROUP: Cause pressure groups promote a particular issue. Pressure groups such as Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace are cause pressure groups because their members are united by their shared interest in protecting the environment. Members of cause pressure groups can be drawn across society.

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OUTSIDER PRESSURE GROUP: Since outsider pressure groups do not posses access in political decision making they need to achieve influence in other ways. This means that they have to gain the attention of government by winning public support. The Gurkha Justice Campaign was an outside group which achieved residency rights for Gurkhas who had served in the British armed forces because of its high profile campaign

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Sectional Group- An association which has an identifiable membership or supporting group. Such groups represent a section of society and are mainly concerned with their interests.

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They are seeking to promote a particular cause, to convert the ideas behind the cause into government action or parliamentary legislation. The cause may be broad, as with groups campaigning on environmental or human rights issues or narrow, as with groups promoting local issues such as the protection of green spaces or opposition to supermarket openings in high streets. Examples include Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth, Liberty, Unlock Democracy, People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND).

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These groups represent a particular section of the community and so constitute part of the functional representation community in the UK. Sectional Groups are self-interested in that they hope to pursue interests specifically of their own membership or those that they represent. Some sectional groups may be a hybrid in that they believe that by serving the interests of their own members and supporters, the wider community will also benefit. For example, unions representing teachers or doctors will argue that the interests of their members are also the interests of all of us. Better educated and better paid teachers or doctors will mean better education and health for all, they argue. It must also be emphasised that large corporations like Google, Starbucks and Amazon are so big and influential that they qualify as a kind of sectional pressure group on their own. They resist proposed legislation that might hinder their operations and seek to emphasise the positive role they paly in the national economy. As they employ high numbers of people and account for a large proportion of economic activity they have a strategically important place in the economy. That gives them great insider influence.

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SECTIONAL/INTEREST GROUPS A particular example of their influence is successful influence to popular calls for such companies to pay more in UK taxes on their profits. Firms and industries such as alcoholic drink manufacturers have campaigned against price controls proposed to reduce excessive drinking. In a similar way the confectionery industry has resisted attempts by government to reduce the sugar content of its products in an anti-obesity drive.

Answer 201

Age UK British Medical Association (BMA) Muslim Council of Britain Taxpayers Alliance Confederation of British Industry (CBI) The MS (Multiple Sclerosis) Society

Answer 202

PROMOTIONAL GROUPS: - They are altruistic in that they serve the whole community not just their own members and supporters - They tend to concentrate on mobilising public opinion and putting pressure on government in that way - They often use direct action in the form of public demonstrations, internet campaigns and sometimes civil disobedience - They seek widespread support

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FEATURES OF SECTIONAL GROUPS: - They are largely (not always) self interested in that they serve the interests of their own members and supporters - Although they seek public support they tend to seek links with decision makers (insider status) - Their method tends to be more 'responsible' and they often take the parliamentary route to influence - They usually have a formal membership

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INSIDER GROUPS: They seek to become involved in the early stages of policy and law making. This means that they are often consulted by decision makers and sometimes offer expert advice and information. Some such groups employ professional lobbyists whose job it is to gain access to decision makers and make high quality presentations of their case. Government at different levels uses special committees to make decisions about policy. Some groups may find themselves represented at such bodies and so will have a specially privileged position. For example, The National Farmers Union (NFU) and the Institute of Directors (IOD) have advised the government on these committees, as have trade unions and professional bodies representing groups of workers and members of the professions. Sectional groups may be called upon to testify before parliamentary committees, both select and legislative. Although they attend mainly to give advice and information they may also use the opportunity to have some long term influence

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OUTSIDER GROUP: These are groups which do not enjoy a special position within government circles. This may be because decision makers do not wish to be seen to be too close to them or because a group itself wants to maintain its independence from government. For example, Greenpeace, which is a radical environmental issue group will have nothing to do with government and government does not wish to be associated with it.

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FEATURES OF OUTSIDER GROUPS: They are usually, but not always, promotional groups. Sectional groups with identifiable memberships and support groups are a useful ally in policy making, but promotional groups have less certain legitimacy. Their typical methods include public campaigning, in recent times often using new media to reach large parts of the population quickly. They seek to influence not through direct lobbying or ministerial contacts but by demonstrating to government that public opinion is on their side. Outsiders do not need to behave in such a responsible way as insider groups so they often use civil disobedience, mass strikes and publicity stunts.

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Lobbying- An activity, commonly used by pressure groups, promote causes and interests. Lobbying takes various forms, including organising large gatherings at Parliament or council offices, seeking direct meetings with decision makers including ministers and councillors, and employing professional organisations to run campaigns.

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Access points and lobbying The ways in which groups seek to promote their cause or interests depends to some extent on the access points they have available to them. Insiders who are regularly listened to by decisions makers will sit on policy committees at local, regional, national and European level. They will often keep offices at their point of access. Wile the UK is still a member of the EU, large groups and organisations will have maintained offices in Brussels and Strasbourg. When or if the UK leaves the EU these organisations will have to move back to the UK. Even at local level groups will seek to foster relationships with councillors or with mayoral office. If groups do not have such access points open to them they will look elsewhere for methods Public campaigning Groups without direct access to government tend to mobilise public opinion to promote themselves. Public campaigning ranges from organising mass demonstrations, to creating and publicising e-petitions, to using celebrities to gain publicity, to acts of civil disobedience.

Answer 209

Plane stupid - to prevent airport expansions - invading airports and blocking flights, occupying airport terminals, blocking entrances to airports, delaying Heathrow expansion with a judicial review, organising e-petitions British Medical Association (BMA) - To force government to withdraw a new contract for junior hospital doctors in 2016-17 - Regular withdrawal of labour for routine operation treatments Countryside Alliance - Among other issues the restoration of fox hunting - Local and national large scale demonstrations Greenpeace - various environmental issues - Civil disobedience such as destroying genetically modified crops, disrupting whaling and oil exploration in the Arctic

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It is common for groups to make grants to political parties as a means of finding favour for their cause or interest. Trade unions have long financed the Labour Party. Many business groups and large companies send donations to all parties but mostly the Conservatives. In this way they hope to influence policy. Parliamentary representation is very important. Most MPs and peers promote the interests of one group or another, raising issues in debate or lobbying ministers directly. They are sometimes able to influence the content of legislation, proposing or opposing amendments, if they sit on legislative committees. Media campaigns can be important. Groups may hope that the press, TV, or radio will publicise their concerns. Although the broadcast media in the UK are politically neutral, some programming may publicise an issue to the benefit of the cause. Groups may help to finance such programmes, press advertising can also be used. Some groups have resorted to illegal methods. This is sometimes a last resort when all else has failed, but are also a way of gaining publicity. Greenpeace for example has destroyed genetically modified crops to publicise the dangers while Plane Stupid wishing to demonstrate the dangers of airport expansion have trespassed at Heathrow and disrupted flights. On some occasions a pressure group can pursue an issue through the courts if it feels government or a state body has acted contrary to the rule of law and has discriminated against a group in society

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- size - finance - the strategic position of a particular sectional group - public mood - the attitude of the government itself

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Size- The more supporters a group has, the more pressure it can place on decision makers. Politicians do not like to fly in the face of public opinion because they regularly face the need for re-election. Size is no guarantee of success , as the anti- war coalition discovered in the lead up to the 2003 Iraq War, but it is usually significant. Age UK, which campaigns on behalf of the elderly, has had many successes, not least because it represents a large portion of the population. Also older people vote in larger numbers than the young, so politicians tend to listen to them.

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Finance- Wealthy groups can afford expensive campaigns, employ lobbyists, sponsor political parties and purchase favourable publicity. The banking industry and business groups such as IOD and CBI have considerable funds and have in recent years secured favourable treatment from governments. As with size, finance is not always decisive. Trade unions, give large donations to Labour but this has not resulted in much favourable legislation, save for rises in the minimum wage. Similarly, as public opinion has turned against the finance industry its wealth may be of little use

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The strategic position of a particular sectional group- For example companies and industrial groups have a great deal of leverage because they are vital to the economy. This is especially true if they can threaten to take their business overseas. The banking and motor industries are in this position. Teachers, emergency services and medical professions are also strategic, though they face the danger of losing the support of public opinion if they use their position too often and too radically.

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Public mood- The combination of public sentiment and strong campaigning can be successful in bringing an issue to the attention of decision makers. This has been the case with ASH, which campaigns on smoking and health, where anti smoking feeling combined with a successful lobbying campaign in the last two decades has resulted in a raft of anti tobacco legislation. The same is true of the groups campaigning on behalf of the LGBT community. Success, notably over gay marriage, has largely been due to changes in public attitudes towards ‘alternative’ forms of sexuality.

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The attitude of the government itself- this can be a variable factor, particularly when promotional and sectional groups are bound to be more successful if they combine with a sympathetic government. During the coalition of 2010-15 the influence of the Liberal Democrats in government helped to ensure groups campaigning on behalf of the poor, such as Child Poverty Action Group (CPAG) were successful in reducing the tax burden on low income workers.

Answer 217

Hyperpluralism- A modern phenomenon describing the rapid growth in the number of interest and campaign groups operating in modern democracies. It is feared that the growth in numbers and influence of such groups makes government extremely difficult, as so many different demands and interests have to be satisfied.

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Group politics- A term that refers to the idea that political decision making involves mediating between the competing demands of different groups. It also implies that different groups have open access to decision making individuals and bodies and that the demands of different groups are heard.

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- campaign groups which are too small and have limited funds - unsympathetic government - powerful countervailing groups - public opinion can be a decisive factor

Answer 220

Campaign groups which are too small and have limited funds- Typical among these are groups that represent people with rare medical conditions, local action groups that campaign for action by national or regional decision makers (such as campaigns against hospital closures) and groups that have only recently emerged and have not yet had time to make an impact. The problem is also related to a new phenomenon known as hyperpluralism. This makes government decision making very difficult but also means that smaller, less powerful groups find their voice drowned out by the noise of excessive group politics.

Answer 221

Unsympathetic government- Trade unions have problems influencing Conservative governments while Labour is usually unsympathetic to groups that seek to oppose social reform, such as anti-abortion campaigners or anti-gay groups.

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Powerful countervailing groups- Forest, a pro-smoking campaign group has been regularly defeated by the anti smoking lobby that has public opinion and government on its side. Plane Stupid, trying to hold back airport expansion proposals, is well organised and supported but faces opposition from the powerful air transport lobby as well as business groups.

Answer 223

Public opinion can be a decisive factor- Groups that are supported by public opinion are at a huge advantage, and the opposite is true. Groups that are conservative in nature, i.e. are seeking to hold back social and cultural change often fall foul of public sentiment.

Answer 224

Action on Smoking and Health (ASH) Founding and Objectives- Founded 1967 by academics and interested parties. Its objectives include the spreading of knowledge about the harmful effects of tobacco use and to press government to adopt policies and laws to reduce tobacco use. Methods- ASH conducts research and publicises existing research into the effects of tobacco. It shares this with government and the public. For example, it has sponsored research into the effects of passive smoking and on the effects of e-cigarettes. It is largely an insider group, concentrating on lobbying lawmakers and governments, mainly using scientific data to underpin its case. Successes- There are many examples including restrictions on advertising tobacco products and tobacco sponsorships, health warnings on cigarette packets, persuading government to increase tax on tobacco to deter consumers, restricting point of sale advertising and promotion, successfully campaigning for the law banning smoking in public places, successfully persuading government to develop a law banning smoking in cars carrying children. Failures- ASH would like to go further on smoking bans and is now concerned that e-cigarettes may be harmful. As yet it has not succeeded in changing government policy in these areas. Why is it successful? It helps government to make policy by providing evidence and information. It acts responsibly and has built up a network of supporters within government and Parliament.

Answer 225

The UK is a representative democracy. Political parties, social media and pressure group activity are the main components of a pluralist democracy. Therefore there are multiple means by which different groups and sections of society can have their voices heard and that they have opportunities to influence government at all levels. Pressure groups also form an important barrier between government and the governed. Citizens often feel that their influence through elections, referendums and political parties is too weak. Parties cannot represent a wide enough range of interests and causes, while elections and referendums are relatively infrequent. It is therefore important that there are alternative means by which the citizenry can constantly communicate with government. Pressure groups supply that channel of communication. Without them, citizens might feel powerless and ignored, which is a dangerous situation for democracy.

Answer 226

PRESSURE GROUPS ENHANCE DEMOCRACY: - pressure groups help to disperse power and influence more widely - pressure groups educate the public about important political issues - pressure groups give people more opportunities to participate in politics without having to sacrifice too much of their time and attention - pressure groups can promote and protect the interests and rights of minorities - pressure groups help to call government to account by publicising the effects of policy

Answer 227

PRESSURE GROUPS THREATEN DEMOCRACY: - some pressure groups are elitist and tend to concentrate power in too few hands - influential pressure groups may distort information in their own interests - pressure groups that are internally undemocratic may not accurately represent the views of their members and supporters - finance is a key factor in political influence so groups that are wealthy may wield a disproportionate amount of influence

Answer 228

Think tank- An organisation whose role is to undertake research into various aspects of public policy. They are financed either by government or by private sources or both and they are used by decision makers to inform their policy deliberation. They may be neutral or have a political axe to grind.

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Pressure groups are not the only external influence on decision makers. There are also organisations commonly known as think tanks, lobbyists and more recently celebrities who seek to influence policy and decisions. Some organisations have been set up by government itself to advise on policy. The King’s Fund, which advises on health policy and expenditure is a key example, as is the Office of Fair Trading, which helps to protect the interests of consumers. The Health and Safety Executive is also a semi-independent arm of government advising on possible legislation in its field.

Answer 230

ResPublica - general policy issues Fabian society - issues concerning social justice and equality Adam Smith Institute - promoting free market solutions to economic solutions Liberty - promoting issues concerning the protection of rights and liberties Demos - current political groups etc

Answer 231

Lobbyists are far from neutral. They exist to promote a particular interest. Sometimes called lobby groups, they are also described as public relations companies or public affairs agencies . They operate around EU institutions, Westminster, central government departments and devolved administrations, hoping to further the causes of those who employ them. Very often they employ former politicians who know their way around access points and can offer personal contacts in the political system. Sometimes they are criticised for being the ‘hidden face’ of influence of for being representatives only of wealthy interests.

Answer 232

In recent years it has increasingly been the case that celebrities are used to promote a cause. Celebrities give opportunities for media attention and attracting public support. They have the particular advantage of offering influence without any great expense. The Gurkha Justice campaign - Actress and presenter Joanna Lumley took up the case of the Gurkhas (Nepalese soldiers serving in the British Army). The Gurkha Justice campaign sought to gain the right of residence in the UK for the Gurkhas. In 2009 the campaign was successful and these soldiers were allowed to settle in Britain. Healthy eating in schools - Chef Jamie Oliver has campaigned for many years for healthier eating, especially among school children. He constantly lobbies government to take action against child obesity. Sir Ian Botham and the countryside alliance - Former cricketer Sir Ian Botham has lent his support to the Countryside Alliance in its dispute with the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) over the issue of whether shooting birds is good for conservation.

Answer 233

It is important to distinguish between pressure groups and parties. While both seek to influence politics and political decision making, there are important distinctions between them. Parties seek to gain power at various levels, whereas pressure groups do not. Some pressure groups do put up candidates for election but they do not aspire to government. For that reason, parties are willing to make themselves accountable for their policies. Pressure groups do not. While parties develop policies across the whole range of government responsibilities, the concerns of pressure groups is narrow. They are interested in one cause or interest, or a cluster of causes. It is for these reasons that pressure groups can never be as central to democracy as parties. The lack of accountability of pressure groups means they lack legitimacy.

Answer 234

Civil Liberties- The rights and freedoms enjoyed by citizens which protect them from unfair and arbitrary treatment by the state and government. They are also those freedoms that are guaranteed by the state and the constitution. Civil liberties ae sometimes referred to as ‘civil rights’, especially in the US.

Answer 235

Civil liberties refers to the protections citizens have against government and the state, as well as those rights that are guaranteed by the state. In other words they are rights and freedoms in relation to the state itself. Prominent examples of civil liberties in the UK are:- The right not to be imprisoned without trial The right to a fair trial if accused of a crime The right to vote and stand for election The right not to suffer discrimination on the grounds of colour, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, age etc. The right to form associations for peaceful ends.

Answer 236

Human rights are broader and are not always guaranteed by government. They include most civil liberties but can go further. Human rights can also extend to having a decent standard of living, access to good healthcare and education, perhaps even the right to work. We also refer to the right to free expression, freedom of information, of belief and movement. These are both rights and civil liberties.

Answer 237

Common Law- Traditional conceptions of how disputes should be settled and what rights individuals should have. Common law is established by judges through judicial precedents when they declare what traditional, common law should be. It is sometimes described as ‘judge-made law’, although common law judgements can be found in law books or in digital form.

Answer 238

Common Law Rights The traditional status of rights in the UK has been that every citizen was assumed to have rights unless they were prohibited by law. These rights were sometimes referred to as residual rights. For example, it was assumed that people had freedom of movement unless there was a legal obstruction, such as if a person was convicted of a crime and sentenced to custody. In addition, rights were sometimes specifically stated as a result of a court case when rights were in dispute. In these cases a judge would decide what was the normal or traditional way in which disputes would be settled. Having made his or her decision, the judge would declare what he or she understood people’s rights to be. In doing so the judge was declaring common law. An example might be a married or cohabiting couple. If they were to split up there might be a dispute as to how to divide up their possessions, in other words what rights the couple against each other. If there were no statute law to cover the situation the judge would have to state what the common law was. Once a judge had declared what the common law was under a particular circumstance he or she has created a judicial precedent. In all similar cases, judges had to follow existing judicial precedent. So a great body of common law and common law rights was created over the centuries.

Answer 239

The Human Rights Act 1998 The Human Rights Act (HRA) brought into effect the European Convention on Human Rights (EHCR) which was first established by the Council of Europe in 1950. The UK helped to draft the Convention but did not accept it as binding on its government until 1998. The ECHR establishes a wide range of rights to replace the patchwork of statute and common law rights in the UK. It is binding on all public bodies other than the UK Parliament (and it is politically binding on Parliament even if not legally binding-Parliament will rarely ignore it). It is also enforced by all courts in the UK, so that laws passed at any level should conform to its requirements.

Answer 240

Formal equality- The term ‘formal equality’ refers to aspects of equality that are established by law. The rule of law, in particular, establishes formal equality under the legal system- all must be treated equally by the courts and Parliament. Formal equality may also refer to equal treatment for different sections of society, established in law. This is often described as ‘equal rights’.

Answer 241

The Equality Act 2010 There had been two parliamentary statutes prior to the Equality Act that established formal equality in the UK. The Race Relations Act 1965 outlawed discrimination of most kinds on the grounds of a person’s race or ethnicity. In 1970 the Equal Pay Act required employers to offer equal pay to men and women doing the same job. Important though these developments were, they failed to establish equality in the full sense of the word and missed out important groups in society who have suffered discrimination, notably those with disabilities and members of the gay community. Under the management of Harriet Harman, a Labour minister at the time, the Equality Act was passed in 2010.

Answer 242

It ensures that all legislation and all decision making by government at any level must take into account formal equality for different sections of society. Put another way, the Act outlaws any discrimination against any group. Equality is required and discrimination is outlawed on the following grounds:- Age, disability, gender reassignment, marriage or civil partnership, race, religion or belief, sex, sexual orientation. In theory any kind of discrimination is unlawful under the act but in practice it tends to apply to the following circumstances:- Employment and pay, government services (local, regional, national), healthcare, housing (sales or rent), education, financial services, policing and law enforcement. Equality of these kinds are especially important in relation to group politics and a healthy pluralist democracy. By establishing equality, both formal and informal, between different groups and sections of society, it is more likely that their demands and interests can be taken into account.

Answer 243

The first and perhaps most important truth about rights in the UK is that all citizens have equal rights. Long before the 2010 Equality Act this was a principle of UK law, but the act confirmed it. This means that no individual or group can be discriminated against as far as the law is concerned. The second issue that is raised is how well are rights protected in the UK? There is no doubt that they are better protected today than at any time in the past. The passage of legislation like the Human Rights Act, the Equality Act and the Freedom of Information Act has ensured that rights are enforceable. But there are weaknesses. The main issue is the fact that the UK Parliament remains sovereign. In practice this means that Parliament has the ultimate power to create rights or take them away. In other words, it is not possible in the UK to create a codified set of rights that is binding on successive Parliaments. The rights pressure group Liberty has pointed out that the legislation alone does not guarantee rights. It is ultimately up to Parliament to ensure they are protected. The passage of the Human Rights Act did appear to establish binding rights in the UK, but this was an illusion. The UK Parliament can and occasionally has (for example over anti-terrorism laws) ignored the ECHR. Parliament does largely remain reluctant to contradict the ECHR and all other public bodies must abide by its terms. It must also be said that the UK retains an international reputation for respecting human rights. It is one of the reasons why so many migrants, asylum seekers, and refugees are attracted there. Compared to many countries in the world the UK is a haven for citizen’s rights It is also true that rights in the UK can be suspended under special circumstances. All countries have such a provision, as it is necessary in times of crisis or emergency. It occurred in the 1970s when the UK government introduced internment in Northern Ireland. Internment is the imprisonment, without trial, of suspected terrorists (people of German origin were interned in WW2 for fear they may provide intelligence for the Third Reich or become subversives). This was done in Northern Ireland in order to remove as many potential violent political activists from the streets as possible. In the early part of the 21st Century Parliament allowed the government to hold suspected terrorists for long periods without trial (though not indefinitely) as a result of the Islamic terrorist attacks of 9/11.

Answer 244

STRENGTHS: - there is a strong common law position - the uk is subject to the ECHR - the judiciary has a reputation for being independent and upholding the rule of law even against the expressed wishes of government and parliament. The principle of equal rights is clearly established Weaknesses - common law can be vague and disrupted. It can also be set aside by parliamentary statutes - Parliament remains sovereign and so can ignore the ECHR or can repeal the human rights act. - there is increasing pressure on government, as a result of international terrorism, to curtail rights in the interests of national security. The right to privacy, the right of association and expression as well as freedom from imprisonment without trial are all threatened

Answer 245

The responsibilities of citizens have never been codified in the UK, but there is no doubt they exist. With the increasing amount of immigration to the UK, the issue of what responsibilities or obligations citizens have, especially new or aspiring citizens, has become more acute. It has been argued that rights can only be earned if they are matched by responsibilities, though this principle has never been firmly established. We can identify a number of citizens’ responsibilities which are widely accepted, and responsibilities that may exist, but could be disputed.

Answer 246

Although it is widely acknowledged today that the establishment and protection of individual rights are vital in a modern democracy, it also has to be accepted that the community as a whole has rights too, as do various sections of society. Problems can arise where the rights of individuals clash with the collective rights of the community or sections of the community. Very often there is no solution to these conflicts but politicians are called upon to adjudicate. Occasionally conflicts may end in court for resolution.

Answer 247

YES: Voting is a civic responsibility like jury service. If citizens are not required to fulfil the duties of citizenship the principles of civic society are undermined. Political apathy is a problem in many liberal democracies. In the 2016 US presidential election just 58% of the electorate voted. In the 2017 UK general election turnout was 68.7% -in 1992 it had been 77.7%. Limited numbers of people voting can undermine the legitimacy of the result especially if turnout falls below 50% Those not voting are often ethnic minorities, the poorest in society and young people. This means that the political decisions governments make are skewed towards older and wealthier voters. Compulsory voting would mean that politicians would have to be responsive to all groups of political opinion. Compulsory voting does not have to force people to make a choice. In Australia the voter can spoil their ballot if none of the candidates appeal to them. They must though attend a polling station The legal requirement to vote can have an important educative role. If people have to vote, they will be more likely to inform themselves of the political choices open to them. NO: The public has the right to choose whether or not to vote in an election. It is up to politicians to mobilize public enthusiasm by providing reasons to vote. Compulsory voting could, therefore, remove the incentive for politicians to engage with the public. The votes of the politically disengaged will carry less weight that the votes of those who take their civic responsibilities seriously. Random voting could undermine the legitimacy of the result. Compulsory voting is based on coercion, which is alien to the British political system. Voting is a civic right but it is not a duty like paying taxes According to liberal political theory the extension of the power of the state over the individual ought to be resisted since it limits our right to act as we wish. The British state has traditionally intervened as little as possible in the liberties of its citizens. National Citizenship Service, for example, is voluntary. Not voting can be a positive decision to register dissatisfaction with the candidates or the process. Only 25% of the electorate voted for the police commissioners in 2016, which may indicate that voters find the post insignificant. Forcing the public to vote for a choice they disagree with is an infringement of civic rights.

Answer 248

YES: At age 16, young people can exercise significant responsibility; they can engage in sexual relations, marry, pay tax, and join the armed forces. It is therefore irrational that they are regarded as not mature enough to vote. The introduction of citizenship lessons into the school curriculum means that young people are now better educated about current affairs and so can make informed political decisions. National Citizenship Service is encouraging young people to have a stake in society, which would be further entrenched by voting at 16. Most Local Education Authorities (LEAs) hold elections for the UK Youth Parliament, which has been praised by politicians such as the Speaker for the House of Commons, John Bercow, for its positive campaigning. In 2017 955,000 young people aged 11-18 determined what the Youth Parliament would debate as part of the Make Your Mark campaign. In 2014 Scottish Independence referendum demonstrated huge engagement by 16 & 17 year olds. 75% of this age group voted and according to Ruth Davidson, leader of the Scottish Conservatives, ‘the democratic effect turned out to be entirely positive’. Since 16 & 17 year olds can vote for the Scottish Parliament it is illogical that they cannot vote for the Westminster Parliament. Providing young people with the opportunity to vote earlier will encourage them to take their duties as citizens earlier; especially as these habits can be encouraged while they are still at school.

Answer 249

NO ARGUEMENTS: Some of these claims are misleading. Parental permission is needed to join the army at 16 & 17 and apart from in Scotland, parental permission is required to marry before 18. Young people are not regarded as responsible enough to be able to buy alcohol or cigarettes until they are 18, so it is disingenuous to claim that 16 & 17 year olds are capable of exercising all adult responsibilities. Most 16 and 17 year olds in the UK are still in full or part time education. They are therefore less likely to pay tax and so do not have the same ‘stake’ in society as those who are older. Voting turnout amongst 18-24 year olds is lower than other age groups, so allowing 16 & 17 year olds the vote could actually compound the problem of youth apathy. The Isle of Man has enfranchised 16 and 17 year olds, the turn out in this age group has declined from 55.3% in 2006 to 46.2% in 2016. 16 and 17 year olds have few adult life experiences on which to base their voting decisions. Thus they are more likely to be manipulated into voting in a certain way, by for instance social media pressure. Although Scotland has reduced the voting age to 16, this does not mean it is the right thing to do. Very few countries allow voting at 16, so the UK is within the political mainstream by granting the franchise at 18. The Labour Party under Jeremy Corbyn has been so closely identifying with the youth vote that by reducing the voting age to 16 now could be an act of partisanship.

Answer 250

Great Reform Act 1832- A limited by symbolically important development. The franchise is extended to new classes of people including shopkeepers and small farmers and anyone whose property attracts a rent of at least £10 per annum. The proportion of the adult population granted the franchise is now nearly 6%, a rise from about 4%. Women are not allowed to vote. Second Reform Act 1867- This Act extends the right to vote again, though it only doubles the electorate to about 2 million. Women, the property less and tenants of very cheap properties are excluded. Ballot Act 1872- This introduces the secret ballot. The main result is that votes can no longer be bought by corrupt candidates and voters are free to make up their own minds. Third Reform Act 1884- The franchise is extended to most working men. About 60% of all adults (over 21) have the right to vote. Representation of the People Act 1918- Most adult men are given the right to vote, plus women over 30 who are either married, or a property owner or a graduate. Representation of the People Act (Equal Franchise Act) 1928- This extends the franchise to all adults over 21, including women. Representation of the People Act 1948- Until this Act some universities returned their own MPs. This meant that some people, who were members of the universities, had two votes, one for the university and one for the constituency where they lived. So, the principle of ‘one person, one vote’ is finally established in the UK. Representation of the People Act 1969- The voting age in the UK is reduced from 21 to 18. Scottish Elections (Reduction of Voting Age) Act2016- In 2014, for the first time in the UK 16 and 17-year olds are allowed to vote in the referendum on Scottish independence. Under the 2016 Act, this is extended to all elections in Scotland, but not to UK general elections or referendums