Political parties

Question 1

What is the political spectrum

Answer 1

Political spectrum, a model for classifying political actors, parties, or ideologies along one or more axes that compare them.

Question 2

What are the principles of parties (list 5)

Answer 2

• The membrers of parties share similar political values and views
  
  • Parties seek either to secure the election of their candidates as representatives or to form the government at various levles
  • They have some kind of organtisation that develops policy, recruits candidates and identifies leaders
  • Some are mass membership parites with many members others may have a small leadership group who seek supporters rather than members
  • Some parties may be highly organised with a formal permanent organisisation, while others have a loose, less permanent orgainsiation
  • Some parties may have a very narrow range of values and views, and are intensely united around thosse views; others have a very broad range of views and values and so may be divided into factions
  • Some parties are very focused on gaining power while others recognise they will not gain power but merely seek to influence the political system

Question 3

What are the functions of parties

Answer 3

• Making party policy (aggregation) and making political programmes
  
  • Representation
  • Selecting candidates
  • Indentifying leaders
  • Contesting elections
  • Political education
    Reinforcing consent

Question 4

How are political parties funded

Answer 4

• Collecting membership subscription from members
  
  • Holding fundraising events
  • Receiving donations from supporters
  • Raising loans from wealthy individuals or banks
  • The self-financing of candidates for office
  • Money granted to opposition parties in the Commons and Lords
    Up to 2 million per party available in grants from the Electoral Commission

Question 5

Why is party funding controversial

Answer 5

• Favors the two biggest parties putting others at a great disadvantage
  
  • Funding by large donors represents a hidden and unaccountable form of political influence. Parties are not allowed to change specific policies or propose legislation as a direct result of donations.
  • Aspects of funding may verge on being corrupt morally and legally as some donors may expect to receive and honor form the party leaders such as peerage or knighthood.
    Party membership declining means donation is more heavily relied on.

Question 6

What are the possible solutions to reduce party funding scandals

Answer 6

a. Impose restrictions on the size of individual donations to parties and the cap would be quite low
b. Impose tight spending restrictions
c. Restrict donations to individuals
Replace funding with state grants for parties

Question 7

Arguments for parties receiving full state funding

Answer 7

• It would end the opportunities for corrupt use of donations
• It would end the possibilities of ‘hidden forms’ of influence through funding
• It would reduce the huge financial advantage that large parties enjoy and give smaller parties the opportunity to make progress
  It would improve democracy by ensuring wider participation from groups that have no ready source of funds

Question 8

Arguments against parties receiving full state funding

Answer 8

• Taxpayers might object to funding what can be considered ‘private’ organisations or parties with view they find offensive.
• It would be difficult to know how to distribute funding. Should it be on the basis of past performance (in which case large parties would retain their advantage or on the basis of future aspirations (which is vague)?
• Parties might lose some of their independence and would see themselves as organs of the state.
  State funding might lead to excessive state regulation of parties.

Question 9

What is conservatism

Answer 9

Conservatives seek to defend the prevailing social order or reinstate a past order, whatever that may be.
· Conservatives are anti-utopian and have a sceptical attitude towards human nature and morality.

Question 10

History of conservatism

Answer 10

· Idea of the importance of preserving status quo dates back to 14th Century
· Began to be used in a political sense in the 18th century - French Revolution.
· European fascism, i.e. the regimes of Hitler and Mussolini, drew on existing anti-modernist conservatism and anti-communism. But most traditionalist conservatives disliked mass fascist movements and the personality cult around the leader.
Modern British Conservative party founded by Sir Robert Peel in 1840s.

Question 11

What is one nation conservatism and who did it originate with

Answer 11

A paternalistic form of British conservatism. It advocates the preservation of established institutions and traditional principles within a political democracy, in combination with social and economic programmes designed to benefit the ordinary person. According to this political philosophy, society should be allowed to develop in an organic way, rather than being engineered

Benjamin Disraeli

Question 12

What are the key principles of traditional conservatism

Answer 12

Human nature, order, tradition and preservation, the organic society, pragmatism, individualism, property, opposition to ideology

Question 13

What is One Nation conservatisms’ views on the principle of human nature

Answer 13

○ The deepest conservatives believe man is born with original sin, therefore is flawed and cannot ever be perfect. They believe that mankind is not driven by reason but by basic appetites. Socialisms and anarchism have argued that mankind can be molded
○ Tradition to see people on the whole as trustworthy, self-seeking and generally feckless. This adds up to the clear conclusion that mankind is sorely in need of firm government but not dictoral figures as they rise to power too easily.
○ It is normal for human beings to think of themselves first and the interests of society second so the state need to intervene to allow self interest to not take over
○ Two practical implications of conservative view:
- Field of law and order is an obvious example as conservative believe this lies with the individual
The nature of the government as if there is an excess of popular democracy the country is likely to be poorly governed

Question 14

What is One Nation conservatisms’ views on the principle of order

Answer 14

They view mankind’s most basic need is for order and security and can come from two English thinkers Hobbes and Burke.
○ In practice everyone would consider themselves as in competition and Hobbes believed that faced with a dilemma, mankind would choose to sacrifice much of its freedom and rights in favour of a secure existence. Therefore conservatives have preferred strong government and community needs first.
○ Burke believed there is a plea for gradual reform and not revolutionary change and therefore conservatives have always been cautious.
Eg = Preference for social order over rights and freedoms is now leading to the struggle with terrorisms

Question 15

What is the new right’s core ideas on deregulation

Answer 15

While socialists were arguing that the answer to Britain’s problems in the early 1980’s was more State intervention the New Right suggests that the source of problems was too much intervention. Therefore proposed that as far as it was practical the state should ‘disengage’ from those parts of society and promote wealth.

Deregulation lead to privatization of major industries that were formerly under state control and public ownership. These are such as telecommunications, gas, electricity generation and supply, coal and steel.

Question 16

What is One Nation conservatisms’ views on the principle of tradition and preservation

Answer 16

○ There preservation of tradition is similar to desire for public order. Burke said the French revolution was the greatest crime when traditional forms of authority was abandoned
○ They argue that they carry the ‘accumulated wisdom of the past’ and should therefore be respected and traditions bring society some of the best aspects of previous society’s
○ Burke praised traditions for their ability to provide continuity between the past and present giving a sense of security
○ This can be seen in the monarchy as Conservatives believe that it provides a sense of continuity and structure.
○ Institutions should preserve values
Modern British conservatism has ignored the importance of tradition since the 1980’s and embraced social theory’s such as opposition to the dependency culture and privatisisation

Question 17

What is One Nation conservatisms’ views on the principle of the organic society

Answer 17

○ Dating back to Disraeli leadership in the 1860/70’s Conservatives believe the nation need to unite to prevent social conflict.
○ People are part of one single body in the nation and they are all interdependent despite classes eg social classes.
○ Denies the notion that we are merely individuals pursuing our own interests, although not like socialists as they accept individuals should be able to pursue their own goals and we are fundamentally unequal
It is the role of the state to ensure unity of society

Question 18

What is One Nation conservatisms’ views on the principle of pragmatism

Answer 18

○ They do not want ‘no change’ as Oakeshott advocated that political action should never lead to conflict and more a gentle relationship between government and the governed
○ Implies a flexible approach to politics understanding what is best for the people and what will preserve a stable society.
1950’s Conservative government dealing with a number of radical reformers that had been undertaken by the Labour government

Question 19

What is One Nation conservatisms’ views on the principle of individualism

Answer 19

○ It has lost lots of distinctness but has two main elements
- It suggests each individual and household should be presented with widespread range of choices and opportunities. The state should restrict choices as little as possible.
- Individualism implies a sense of privacy as there are many areas where the interference of the state may not be seen as legitimate. There is a strong barrier between what should be preserved in public and private spheres
It can best flourish in a stable, social, moral and economic environment

Question 20

What is One Nation conservatisms’ views on the principle of property

Answer 20

○ Conservatives in the nineteenth century feared the rise of the property-owning middle class but then accepted the incorporation of property owners
In modern context, they attempt to defend the interests of home and business owners as it is a security and fundamental aspect of a civilized existence

Question 21

What is One Nation conservatisms’ views on the principle of opposition to ideology

Answer 21

○ They fear that an excessive attachment to a political ideology can lead to tyranny such as fascism and communism
○ They do not believe society should be driven towards any particular goals be develop naturally
Ideologies make false assumptions about human nature

Question 22

What is the new right

Answer 22

Hybrid philosophy, a combination of neo-conservativism and neo-liberalism popular in the US as well. Liberal attitudes towards the free market and capitalist economy, but conservative attitudes on society. This is interchangeable for Thatcherism.

Question 23

What is the new right reacting against

Answer 23

Reaction against traditional Conservatism, Welfare Capitalism, Trade union power

Question 24

What are the new rights core ideas

Answer 24

Deregulation, disengagement, trade union reform, low taxation, dependency culture, neo-conservatism

Question 25

What is old labour

Answer 25

Old Labour refers to the traditional Labour policies such as nationalisation, redistribution of income and wealth and an extended public sector that were rejected by the New Labour approach.

Question 26

What are the core values of old labour (“British” socialism)

Answer 26

Class, equality, social justice, equality of opportunity, collectivism, common ownership

Question 27

What is Old Labour’s views on the principle of class

Answer 27

• Labour has always been forced to consider all classes in their policies mainly to attract electoral support but was known as a working class party
• The size and unity of working class declined steadily in the second half of the 20th century meaning electoral calculations for Labour looked worse
  Therefore, labour shed its class-based image and steadily moved to a more moderate position

Question 28

What is Old Labour’s views on the principle of equality

Answer 28

Acceptance that our society is not absolutely equal and will remain a capitalist-based society even with the unequal rewards that come with it. However the Labour party will try and push to reduce inequality amongst our society as much as possible, so by providing a good standard free education is a vital principle for achieving equality in society.

Question 29

What is Old Labour’s views on the principle of social justice

Answer 29

• There are some who are deprived through no fault of their own and some who have become wealthy through luck rather than their own efforts (e.g. Inheritance) - here wealth should be distributed from rich to poor.
• Those who achieve wealth through their own efforts may deserve to keep it to themselves.
  Those who are struggling and have made no effort to improve their situation should only get the minimum level of state benefit.

Question 30

What is Old Labour’s views on the principle of equality of opportunity

Answer 30

• They have never persued absolute ecconomic equality but accepted the unequal rewards in a capitalist-based society being inevitable, and desirable because they provide incentives through hard work
  Good standard of free education for all has been the principle of achieving equality

Question 31

What is Old Labour’s views on the principle of collectivism

Answer 31

Two main ideas: that people usually prefer to achieve goals collectively rather than individually, and more fundamentally that action taken by people in organised groups is likely more effective than the mere sum of individual actions.

Question 32

What is Old Labour’s views on the principle of common ownership

Answer 32

Pointing to the fact that Christ insisted that his followers pool their resources and shared them out equally

• Can give rise to a number of good outcomes;
• The possibility of imposing economic equality
• As collectivism is seen by socialists as natural, it creates a natural state of society.
• It is possible to direct commonly owned property to serve the interests pf the whole community, not just those fortunate enough to own property.

Question 33

What is new labour

Answer 33

There was an understanding that there had been massive social change and the traditions were no longer appropriate so needed to find a new direction without abandoning it’s traditional values.

Question 34

What are new Labour’s third way policy sectors

Answer 34

Anti-poverty, economic, welfare services, education, law and order, welfare benefits, constitutional reform, Europe, defence and foreign policy

Question 35

What is New Labour’s anti-poverty third way policy

Answer 35

New Labour largely abandoned the traditional socialist aim of redistributing income for economic equality. Instead attacking poverty seeking everyone who is willing to work, unable to through no fault of their own or accepts poorly paid employment should be able to have a decent standard of living. This mean increases in welfare payments such as child benefit, system of tax credits helping poorer.

Question 36

What is New Labour’s economic third way policy

Answer 36

○ Mostly the New Right principles were followed with additional methods controlling public finances.
Direct taxes were kept at a much lower level than had been normally and was a resistance to heavy government borrowing, inflation was controlled by the independent intervention of the Bank of England Monetary Policy Committee.

Question 37

What is New Labour’s welfare services third way policy

Answer 37

Labour inherited run down public services such as health, education, policing and public transport due to the lack of investment and low levels of efficiency. They then used a two-pronged attack, one to divert large increases I public expenditure to these services and also to drive up standards.

Question 38

What is New Labour’s education third way policy

Answer 38

○ This is incredibly critical part of growth emphasizing on the field of higher education as Labour governments adopted a target of creating places in higher education for 50% of each generation of school leavers. The funding issue for this was big and the descions to pay for the greater provision of higher education places by levying extra fees on students deterred students as they took in high levels of debt. Socialists see this as a denial of the principles of the welfare state and criticized the funding policy as makes it harsher for poorer individuals and families
Labour is fully committed to developing academies which are schools set up to replace failing institutions in challenging environments. They have external funding from businesses or charities and therefore more independent

Question 39

What is New Labour’s law and order third way policy

Answer 39

○ These views were based on Blair’s assertion in 1994 as shadow home secretary that they would be ‘tough on crime, tough on the causes of crime’. They attempted to develop ‘joined-up’ policies to combat crime, poverty reduction, community work. The party leadership gradually became more authoritarian in their position on crime.
○ This led to harsher measures against young offenders: tagging, curfews and anti-social behavior orders (ASBOs), persuasion of the judicary to give out more severe sentences.
Following 9/11 and the London terrorist attacks police and security were given additional powers for dealing with terrorists

Question 40

What is New Labour’s welfare benefits third way policy

Answer 40

○ Labour’s anti-poverty programme targeted poor pensioners, deserving disabled, lone families and member of families who are working, seeking work or on low wages. This was combatted by tax credits as some families receive additions to their income through the tax system
○ There were three main objectives for this:
- Targeting benefits on the most needy
- A system designed to create incentives for those who can to find work making it worth taking low paid employed jobs
Take people out of poverty permanently through persuasion to join the workforce and not rely on the state. And also make their own private pension provision so they would not need support in old age

Question 41

What is New Labour’s constitutional reform third way policy

Answer 41

○ The policy’s of devolution, Human rights and freedom of information acts, house of lords reform and opened possibility of electoral reform.
This however dwindled after great reform but in 2010 they renewed their interest again and then proposed more Lords reform and the electoral system reform

Question 42

What is New Labour’s Europe third way policy

Answer 42

○ Labour’s support for closer European integration has declined and all three administrations have refused to hold a referendum on joining the European currency.
The party remains pro-European and supported the Lisbon Treaty. They want the EU to be more democratic, sensitive, financially responsible and less bureaucratic.

Question 43

What is New Labour’s defence and foreign third way policy

Answer 43

○ New Labour is more international than before due to Blair and Brown’s reduction of world poverty want. Britain therefore tackled, debt reduction, foreign aid, climate change and introduction of free world trade.
They followed similar policy to the USA and then due to this supported US Middle East policy in Iraq. They have been ready to intervene in international conflicts so Britain and the US interests are synonymous

Question 44

What is classical liberalism

Answer 44

• Liberal Party Under Gladstone, 2nd half of 19th century. Central commitment to sound finance, limited government and free market economics. Ideologically closer to the Conservatives; some called Thatcher a Gladstonian liberal.
  
  • Some elements resemble conservatism
    Can be critised that they do not have any core values that they stand for

Question 45

What is social liberalism

Answer 45

Dominant tradition in the 20th century. Belief that the state through economic management and welfare provision, can increase the freedom of the individual. Came to be seen as being on the centre-left, much closer to Labour than the Conservatives. Paddy Ashdown (1998-99), Charles Kennedy (1999-2006), Menzies Campbell (2006-7) all fell to the category.

Question 46

What is ‘Orange Book’ Liberalism

Answer 46

• The Orange Book was published in 2004 and argued for policy more sympathetic to markets and economic liberalism whilst being critical of the state. Seeks to encourage more local and voluntary of welfare.
  Nick Clegg contributed to the book so believed he gave a boost to those who believed in this Liberalism.

Question 47

How did the Lib Dems evolve 1988-2015

Answer 47

1988 - SDP and the Liberals merged completely and formed the Liberal Democrats

2005 - Height of election success with 62 seats.

2010 - They had the choice to either join Labour or Conservatives in a coalition or refuse to participate in government. With no ‘good’ options Clegg chose the Conservatives to be in government with for the next 5 years. They injected their own ‘green’ ideas introducing pupil premium support and taking millions of low-income people out of paying tax altogether. They also prevented the Conservative government from implementing more extreme and less acceptable policies. They were held to commiting to not raise university tuition fee’s and then proceeding for it to happen.

2015 - The party won only 8 seats and Clegg resigned as leader being replaced by Tim Farron becoming a minor party.

Question 48

What are the core values of the Lib Dems

Answer 48

○ Liberty
○ Welfare
○ Constitutionalism
○ Social justice
○ Social reformers
○ Liberal democracy
○ Multiculturalism
○ Environment

Question 49

Reasons that the Lib Dems sold out in the coaltion

Answer 49

They no longer supported the fight against raising tuition fees in exchange for a referendum on the voting system

Question 50

Reasons that the Lib Dems did not sell out in the coaltion

Answer 50

• Implemented pupil premiums for schools with deprived students
• Green policies were introduced
• Raised the low-income earning tax so they were out of the tax bracket
  Protected the country from harsher conservative policies

Question 51

What is the Lib Dems ideas/policies for the economy

Answer 51

○ It is not distinctive and proposes rebalancing the economy so wealth and economic activity are widely spread.
○ They are more pragmatic as government budget planning should no operate in such a way to favour one section of society over another.
During a recession the poor in society should be protected and the wealthy should have to pay higher taxes. This is seen in 2019 the party introduced a policy of 1p-in-the-pound tax to help fund the NHS and a policy of free childcare.

Question 52

What is the Lib Dems ideas/policies for law and order

Answer 52

○ Law enforcement system should seek to rehabilitate offenders as much as punishing them. They believe that crime has social causes and they shouldn’t be attacked.
They must become so over-authoritarian that human rights are threatened. There must be a balance between civil liberates and need for peace and security

Question 53

What is the Lib Dems ideas/policies for the European Union

Answer 53

They would of preferred the UK to stay in the EU. They originally accepted the result but the UK but then supported to remain. The party reversed position in 2019 and wanted to stop Brexit.

Question 54

What is the Lib Dems ideas/policies for Welfare

Answer 54

○ Spending on health and education should be protected and increased
○ 2019 pledge to increase the number of teachers by 20,000.
Poor pensioners and single parents should be especially supported

Question 55

What is the Lib Dems ideas/policies for foreign policy

Answer 55

○ They support NATO and it’s aims they are suspicious of excessive interference by the UK in conflicts abroad.
○ Abandon the Trident nuclear submarine missile system
○ Strongly support use of international aid
International conflicts should be settled through United Nations.

Question 56

What is a one party system

Answer 56

This is where only one part is allowed to operate associated with highly authoritarian regimes considered not democratic.

Question 57

What is a dominant party system

Answer 57

Democratic systems that allow parties to operate freely but only one party has a realistic chance of taking governmental power. Highly stable but there is a lack of accountability and competition.

Question 58

What is a Two-party system

Answer 58

Only two parties have a realistic chance of forming a government. It implies that two parties win the vast majority of votes at elections and most of the seats in the representative assemblies of the state.

Question 59

What is a two-and-a-half-party system

Answer 59

There are two main parties that contest elections but also a sizeable third party. The third parties can be seen as holding the balance of power between the two main parties much as the Lib Dems did in 2010. Canada and Australia

Question 60

Multi-party system

Answer 60

There are several parties competing for votes and power, with no set number to define a multi-party system but has more than two parties to have a chance of being in government and governments are often made from coalitions.

Question 61

Why do small parties find it difficult to make an impact

Answer 61

They lack funding, the electoral system may discriminate against them, lack media exposure, lack organization in communities, people consider voting for them to be a wasted vote

Question 62

What factors affect party success

Answer 62

Leadership, unity, social media

Question 63

Reasons why small parties do matter

Answer 63

• Caroline Lucas has hold her seat since 2010
• 11 parties representation in Westminster
• SNP won 56 seats in the House of Commons makin them the 3rd largest
• Sein Fein and DUP part of the NI devolved government
• There are smaller party representation in devolved bodes in different electoral systems

○ Larger parties rely on the support of small government
○ Eg May using support of DUP
○ Scotland is in a minority government so relies on votes from smaller parties

§ 2014 European parliament referendum would not have happened and no hard Brexit without the Brexit party
§ Shift on immigration from an impact of smaller parties
§ Green impacted transport polices in London
§ Small parties can influence single issues at specific times
E.g SNP independence referendum in 2014

Question 64

Reasons why small parties are insignificant

Answer 64

• FPTP system makes them irrelevant if they are thinly spread geographically support
• UKIP won 15% of votes but only one seat gained
• Therefore supports the two party system as voters know their votes will only be useful for Labour and Conservatives
• UKIP after Farage quit has had 7 leaders

○ Not influential and only the big 3 has ever governed the UK and mostly alone
○ Tories have now ruled for 14 years

§ The three main parties have lasting polices and follow ideologies so are more important
§ Small parties cannot gain traction
§ No Brexit without conservatives
Large parties make the political weather

Question 65

What is the political parites, elections and referendums act

Answer 65

• People not on the UK electoral roll could no longer make donations
  
  • Limits placed on how much could be spent on parliamentary elections
  • Donations over £500 had to be declared
    Donations over £7500 were to be placed on an electoral register

Question 66

Examples of large donations to parties

Answer 66

• 2015-17 conservatives received £11.3 million and in the same period they received £3.6 million from property companys
  
  • A hedge fund proprietor Angus Fraser donated £1,137,400 to the conservatives in the same period
  • Unite trade union gave Labour £657,702 in early 2017 and Unison donated £376,242 to them

Question 67

What are the new rights core ideas on disengagement

Answer 67

State would no longer intervene to save declining industries or firms (if they failed they were not efficient enough to compete)
Less intervention in economy - raising public expenditure was too stressful on tax payers and artificial. Exposing economy to overseas competition without help would be the solution resulting in high levels of short term unemployment but supposedly long term economic benefits

Question 68

What are the new rights core ideas on Trade union reform

Answer 68

Followers of the New Right saw trade unions as the main culprits and the maintenance of excessive inflation. They used their power to maintain inefficient working practices preventing technological innovation. They were the cause of excessively high wages, leading to alarming price increases. And the new right was opposed to intervening to control this.

The unions were reformed by the reduction of power to make it more difficult for strikes to be called in support of wage claims and making it unlawful if they had a political aim. The unions were forced to become internally democratic and the traditionally legal immunity of trade unions was removed.

Question 69

What are the new rights core ideas on low taxation

Answer 69

By 1980s income tax and taxes on businesses had reached high levels. New Right thought high tax was a disincentive to hard work. Income tax was reduced especially for high income earners (top rate reduced from 83% to 60%). Some VAT raised to compensate for corporation tax too.

Question 70

What are the new rights core ideas on dependency culture

Answer 70

General attitude: poor deserved to be poor because they lacked a work ethic or sense of enterprise
New Right argued that welfare benefits were too high and that this had created a dependency culture.
1980s – state benefits were gradually eroded

Question 71

What are the new rights core ideas on Neo-Conservatism

Answer 71

Economic Patriotism - stress on nationalism takes form of insistence that economic interests of the nation are paramount. British Neo-conservatives tend to oppose European integration because it doesn’t serve Britain’s best interests. Sceptical of international free trade - domestic industries should be protected.
Social Conservatism - Authoritarian stance on crime. Restoration of traditional moral values. Desire for retention and strengthening of traditional family unit. Extreme version proposes extensive attack on immorality and breakdown of public order.
Mono-culturalism - intolerant of different cultures. Suspicious of immigration and asylum seekers. Migrants threaten British values. Multiculturalism rejected.