Political Authority Flashcards
Assess the problems Philip II inherited from his father. 4 potential paragraphs
- Growth of Protestantism/ Threat from Islam
- Financial problems
- Foreign policy
- Government
Philip’s lands in 1556
In 1556, Philip was King of Spain, Ruler of Sardinia, King of Naples and Sicily and Ruler of each province in the Netherlands
The Spanish empire also held lands in the Americas including Peru, Florida, the West Indies and Argentina
Growth of Protestantism/ Threat from Islam at the start of his reign
- Growth of Protestantism/ Threat from Islam
Protestant panic (Falsified?)
As the Archbishop of Seville and Inquisitor General, Fernando de Valdés y Salas creates the Protestant Panic by reporting a large problem of Protestants in Spain in order to distract Philip and re-energise the Inquisition in the 1550s
Few protestants in Spain
Moriscos
Did not integrate as well as the Coversos
Seen as ‘the enemy within’ as Spain was fighting the Islamic forces of the Ottoman Turks whilst these converted Muslims resided in Spain
1492: Final conquest of the last Islamic kingdom in Spain, Granda
1502: All Muslims are forced to convert (Moriscos) or emigrate
Financial problems at the start of his reign
- Financial Problems
Debt of 30 million ducats inherited
The debt experienced by Philip had a significant impact upon philip’s governance, as the insufficient finance underpinned his ability to implement policies and combat problems
Forced him into bankruptcies and forced to sue for peace at cateau cambresis
Declared bankrupt in 1557
Internal financial structures are poor and having to look for extraordinary tax revenues from the cortes the desperation of Philip’s government to counter the uncompromising debt can be inferred from the diversity and frequency of money raising schemes devised
The scale of Philip’s commitments and the frequency of bankruptcies were unprecedented
Cortes frequently reminded him of the severe impact the foreign financiers were inflicting upon the castilian economy with alarming interest rates of 4.6 million ducats in 1590
Foreign policy at the start of his reign
- Foreign Policy
War with France
Inherited the Hapsburg-Valois war from his father
Following his bankruptcy in 1557 he managed to agree the Treaty of Cateau Cambresis in 1559, ending the wars
The treaty meant that the French kept Calais and they no longer claimed Italian lands. Philip was satisfied
BUT: Marriage to Mary Tudor- Good rel. With England
Under assault from Ottomans
Ottomans capture Tripoli and Bougie in the 1550s and have pushed as far as Vienna (Capital of the Hapsburgs)
Barbary Corsairs threatened trade
He inherited a war with the anti-Spanish Pope Paul IV, who promptly excommunicated Philip when a Spanish army threatened Rome
Government at the start of his reign
- Government (Talk about only if acc. Asked in the question)
Lack of unity
Disagreement between Aragon and Castille over Fueros (See ‘Philip’s imperial inheritance’)
Castille: Included Granada in 1492 and Navarra in 1515
½ of Philip’s subjects in Granada were Moriscos
Philip relied upon high noble landowners and the Cortes
Aragon was a federation of 3 kingdoms, each with their own traditions, institutions and government.
Catalonia was one of the most lawless regions in Spain making it extremely difficult to govern as they defended their fueros fiercely
Italy and Netherlands reluctant to contribute finances to Spanish empire
Dutch defended their liberties making it very difficult for Philip to extract their wealth
Communication with overseas colonies
He had difficulty defending his overseas colonies due to the naval capabilities of the Portuguese and the British pirates
Conflicts between Spain and its colonies usually sorted by giving them independence, hence Philip was losing land
Intro and historiography on Absolutism essay
Introduction
Definition of absolutism is ‘uninhibited political control over a state and its policies- literally free from the restraint of law.
Oritz and Pierson argue that Philip did achieve this claiming “royal absolutism was a reality under Philip”
Thompson, Woodward and Kamen contend absolutism as ‘a legal fiction’
Unlikely Philip had the intention of becoming an absolute monarch given budgetary constraints
Criteria for assessing absolutism:
Ability to execute personal justice
Existence of personal rule in a centralised state
Absence of institutional mechanisms of government which exert some forms of checks and balances.
Paragraph for absolutism: Ability to execute personal justice
Personal Justice- Monarch being above the law and reserving the ability to overrule
Most central tenant as it underwrites the whole concept
Yes:
- He had the ability to veto an act by decree
- Deaths of Montigny, Escobedo are questionable and usually have a unique reason for them. Exaggerate ability to execute personal justice
- Escobedo affair was special in particular as Philip actually could not get involved due to the uproar it created (If absolute, however, why would he have cared?)
- He was able to arrest is son, Don carlos, in 1568 after he threatened his life the previous year.
- As a member of the higher nobility, Floris was a strong opponent to Cardinal Granvelle in Flanders → On his way back to Spain in a last attempt to prevent war in 1566 he was arrested and kept under house arrest at Simancas castle → He was condemned to death by the Council of Troubles but Philip had him strangled in spite of the pleas of his new wife Anna of Austria and spread the rumour that Floris died of natural disease.
But:
- Promise in 1555 to ‘legislate by decree’- Use of legal procedures, not his own rulings
- He strengthened the system of hierarchical courts which he inherited from Charles through policies such as the codification of Castilian laws in 1569
- Under this judicial structure, private lawsuits could be filed against the King
- 1593- He demanded that convicts who had been serving as galley slaves but were transferred to the mines of Almaden, be released at the end of their original sentences. Despite this habeas corpus was frequently ignored or forgotten as in the infamous case of Don Carlos
- He did not challenge extra-judicial killings as in the case of Baron Montigny, Escobedo and Lanuza
Paragraph for absolutism: Personal rule in a centralised state
Controlling daily political activity, combined with a centralised state where the power can be implemented is a key component of absolutism
Yes:
- He did achieve this is Castille
- Capital in Madrid in 1561
- Grandees were very powerful yet remained arguably subservient to Philip (e.g. in Salamanca 63% of land was under noble control) when it came to important matters.- Eg. Parma was forced to return from the Netherlands in April 1590 and Medina Sidonia was unable to refuse the command of the Armada in 1588, despite his efforts.
- The hierarchical system of government which meant everything came to Philip in the end (Historians criticise this with the “bottleneck effect”)
- Appearance as centralisation yet was a complex of ‘ad hoc’ councils (Councils set up for a specific task and then dissolved following its completion) with the King at the centre
- He created 6 territorial councils (Aragon, Castile, Catalonia, Italy, Flander and Portugal) and 8 departmental councils. He made no attempt to unify them so that they would each report to him about any problem anywhere in the Empire at any one moment.
But:
- Outside of Castile his influence was far weaker
- Philip sells land to nobles to solve financial problems- Loss of power
- 73 out of 300 towns in Valencia were under royal control
- Problem of time messages took to reach different parts of his empire- situation would often change by the time he received a reply (10 days to get a letter from Madrid to Brussels)- This time delay meant it was essential to delegate power to local viceroys in Aragon and his Italian possessions.
- Revolt of Aragon 1591- Caused by tensions due to local viceroy appointment being from Castile and fears Philip was trying to Castilianise the Aragonese and disband their local fueros. (However, troubles put down in 6 weeks)
- Council of War- Sounds centralised- facade- Only had 3 people on it and no permanent governor
So:
His control varied regionally and hence it cannot be described he was an absolute monarch
Paragraph for Absolutism: No government restrictions on his power
Yes:
- He had complete control over the church and could make ecclesiastical appointments and collect tithes.
- Control over Conciliar system- could dismiss recommendations from the council and monopolised appointments to them.
- Secretaries only had power in controlling the flow of information to the King
- Castilian Cortes was a submissive institution even by contemporary standards and had little authority except in financial matters
- Philip was v. cautious. E.g. Cardinal Espinosa was dismissed, despite being the ablest of all his servants, when he assumed too much responsibility
- Philip’s “micro-management” nature meant he wanted to approve of every piece of legislation that passed through his desk and as such as he took control of all the government decisions.
But:
- Cortes’ power in financial matters gave them the ability to wield considerable influence on Philips governance- focused on milliones tax- successfully blocked the tax twice and Philip finally got it passed with over 100 conditions
- Aragonese Cortes was far more hostile towards Philip over the issue of protection of Aragonese fueros.
- Navarrese Cortes denied Philip the right to levy taxes
- Italian representative bodies (Milan and Naples) were successful in preventing the imposition of the Inquisition
- Limits imposed on Philips power acknowledged as he is careful not to impede on Portuguese fueros following its annexation in 1580.
So:
- Cannot be regarded as absolutist due to the conflict he comes in to with many other bodies, especially over the issue of taxation.
Conclusion for Absolutism
Conclusion:
Concept of absolutism is difficult to fully obtain as states and complex logistics prevent total mastery of an individual
Although can be said he had dominant authority in government
Degree of his authority varied regionally
If Philip came close to being an absolute monarch then it was only in Castile, outside of Castile his power was restricted.
Importance of the Conciliar system
Conciliar System
As a result of Philip establishing his capital in Madrid it ensured he would be surrounded by central councils
Which by the end of his reign numbered 14
Each council exercised executive, legislative and judicial functions, with considerable power resting on each of the presidents of these councils
Each council was capable of issuing edicts to the viceroys to carry out the intention of the council
Furthermore individual councils such as the Council of the Inquisition were responsible for 21 tribunals and were able to interfere in secular matters throughout the monarquia making it a very powerful institution
Council of Castille- Supreme Court of Law
Council of Aragon- Also handled affairs of Italy
Council of Inquisition- Looks after Tribunals
Council of Camara- Controls appointments and patronage
Councils distinctly separate, Philip makes no attempt to unify them
Importance of Juntas
Juntas
Ad hoc committees (Committees formed for a specific task, then dissolved after its completion) adopted in the 1580s, which were utilised as an effective way for Philip to digest information
With the most important business came to be conducted in a select group of 3 or 4 close advisers in company of the King’s secretary, known as the Junta De Noche
This small committee was able to pass recommendations directly to the King
The Junta de Noche had developed clear areas of responsibility by 1593, with each member overseeing specific areas:
Moura: Financial affairs and Portugal
Idiaquez: Foreign, military and naval affairs
Chinchon: Aragon, Italy, with Vasquez acting as a general coordinator
Philip depended heavily upon these intimate advisers
Which was more important: Juntas or Conciliar system
Conclusion:
Juntas more influential as they met far more frequently
Additionally they exerted greater influence upon Philip, as he relied heavily upon Juntas
Following advice from Juntas, he was able to issue each satellite council commands to which they would respond, from which it is easy to infer which offered greater influence
In addition many councils were redundant or their influence was insignificant in comparison to the Juntas, which is epitomised by the degradation of the Council of state which was surpassed by the Council de Noche who were able to to pass recommendations directly to the king, with Philip infrequently attending Council meetings due to his inability to make impulsive decisions
Philip and ordinary income
- Ordinary Income (Regular taxation)
Alcabala is a 10% sales tax largely implemented in Castilian towns. The Cortes resisted this rate change but Philip forced it through against their wishes. It was supposed to raise around 3.7 million ducats but fell about 1 million short each year
Other sales taxes included the seda- Tax upon the Granadan silk industry
Customs duties were a major source of revenue but declined as trade was impacted by warfare in the 1560’s
Rents from Crown lands- Massively in decline due to Charles and Philip selling off land to raise money
Philip and extraordinary income
- Extraordinary revenue (One-off taxation)
The Servicio was a one-off tax which required approval from the Cortes. Targeted middle/lower class as the nobility and clergy did not have to pay. 6 servicios were granted in Castile during Philip’s reign. Aragon was v. resistant to servicios
In 1590, the milliones was granted- A one-off tax on essentials designed to raise 8m ducats to pay for his wars in England, France and the Netherlands. Deeply unpopular and generated widespread protests
Taxes in the Netherlands (1/10th penny and 1/100th penny tax)
Taxes increased by 430% during Philip’s reign
Philip and Chruch revenue
- The Church
Raised income through the local population called tithes. In Spain, these were paid directly to the monarch
Tax incomes of bishoprics, exploited the income of vacant sees and the seizing of some estates
Philip was authorised by the Pope to collect the ‘Three Graces’ (The cruzada, subsidio and the excusado). Collectively worth 1.4m ducats every year
Church was expected to be self-financing so income went directly to Philip’s pocket
Gold and Silver from the New World
- Gold and Silver from the New World
Annual bullion fleet brought gold and silver back from the New World
Total imports x3 from 1556 to 1598
The crown was entitled to 1/5th of all precious metals and stones mined in the Americans, as well as customs revenue
Brought in around 64 million ducats throughout his reign
Philip used the Bullion as security to borrow money
Debts and bankruptcies of Philip’s reign
Debt x3 during Philip’s reign
Declared bankruptcy in 1557, 1575 and 1596 as well as being forced to reschedule debts in the 1560s
Threat from Factionalism
Factionalism:
Factionalism presented a dangerous threat throughout Philip’s tenure
This was particularly the case in Aragon, where the absence of the King had allowed powerful noble families to exercise a high degree of control and to continue rival conflicts with a level of impunity
The key factions that arose were Ruy Gomez , the prince of Eboli, which was overtaken by Perez after Eboli’s death in 1573 (Eboli Faction) and the Duke of Alba (Toledo Faction)
This extended to secretaries with zayas and perez
This often led to confusion of policy and dissent especially in the Netherlands, with Alva encouraging ruthless intervention
The opinions of these factions were rarely consistent and could easily change, however Alba faction led the war party with the Eboli faction tended towards a more moderate policy
This occasionally spiralled out of control, with Perez encouraging Escobedo’s murder in 1578, murdering an innocent man and potentially compromising Philip’s position and therefore has an impact upon his government
In addition the struggles between Vasquez and Perez in Madrid virtually paralysed government in the 1570’s
This prevented the resolving of many key issues within Philip’s government and in turn generated considerable masses of paperwork and by 1580’s
Threat from Provincialism
Provincialism
Provincialism was a problem throughout Philip’s rule, with his clear preference of Castile over the other areas of Spain causing bitterness in other provinces (especially aragon)
He didn’t visit aragon between 1563 and 1588
In 1582 he appointed the Castilian Count of Almenara as the Viceroy (which infringed upon their fueros)
In 1582 again he introduced troops into Valencia to protect against a possible landing of the North African pirates, which was replicated in Ribagorza
In 1591 Ribagorza became a possession of the crown
Antonio Perez managed to escape prison in 1591 to Aragon and create further troubles, indicating that the fact he was not tried in Aragon was another way of Castile imposing their wishes upon Aragon, and again after he was proclaimed innocent by the Aragonese court but implicated by Castilians
This then led to the Revolt of Aragon in 1591-2: leading to the marquis of Almenara to be killed
Though the revolt was quickly quelled with 13,000 troops and can be considered a “military parade” (Lovett), it coincided with revolts in Toledo and Madrid, indicating a lack of unity in Spain
As an outcome, Philip kept the traditional forms of governing yet made reforms (he was still able to appoint non-native viceroys, now able to dictate appointment of Justiciar and the Cortes could no longer tamper with Aragonese revenue), Philip respected the liberties of Aragon, yet modified them so they would fit with Philip’s form of governing
There were no further revolts against Philip
Conclusion of which presented the greater threat? Factionalism or Provincialism?
Conclusion:
Philip’s personal authority remained unchallenged throughout factional strife, instead Philip utilised factionalism to strengthen his position as the violently opposed parties could never be unanimous and thus never challenged by a united group of councillors
Furthermore, Philip was largely absent from Council of State meetings and consequently was largely immune to factional pressures
In addition factionalism no longer posed a threat after 1579 following the arrest of the Princess of Eboli and Perez
Background of Gonzalo Perez
Gonzalo Perez – Secretary of State to 1556
•1543-1566 Philip’s Personal Secretary
•Aragonese
•Highly influential on Philip in his formative years – a cleric and educated in the humanist style
•Trains his son to assume a similar role
•Dies in 1566 and his role is split between his son, Antonio Perez and de Zayas.
