Dutch revolt

Question 1

State of Netherlands in 1556

Answer 1

• Politically, the Netherlands is divided into 17 provinces who see themselves as individual states making managing the nation problematic
• It was a “confederation of states rather than a single country” with each province having its own parliament and any national decisions had to go through the ‘states general’ which was a body of representatives
• Economically, each province had their own economic system with Northern Provinces being wealthier due to trade and shipping
• Total Dutch wealth was around 2x that of Englands
• Antwerp had a very well developed banking system
• Religiously, Calvinists only made up 2-3% of the population and Philip followed his Father’s policies and persecuted them
• Netherlands typically had a more liberal approach to Catholicism

Question 2

Philip’s aims in the Netherlands and early visits

Answer 2

Absence after 1559
When he took over from his father in 1555 he implemented a number of policies which his failure to see through by staying in the Netherlands reflected the start of grievances
1. Stationed a garrison of Spanish troops in the fortresses in the Low countries
2. Decreed a radical reorganization of the ecclesiastical structure involving the creation of new bishoprics
3. Each new bishop was to have a team of inquisitors for the better persecution of all heretical opinions
Philip returned to Spain in 1559, leaving Cardinal Granvelle at the head of a council to govern the country
It was this exclusion of the Netherlands’ own political leaders which began the slide into rebellion

Question 3

Economic situation by 1572

Answer 3

The economic situation was desperate with food and work scarce
8 to 10,000 were unemployed and trade had frozen

Question 4

By 1598

Answer 4

1594: The fort of Groningen (the last Spanish fortress in the North) is won by Maurice of Nassau for the United Provinces
Philip is bankrupt in 1596
1597: Maurice of Nassau’s victory in the battle of Turnhout. The battle had a symbolic importance in pushing the Spanish out of a strategically significant position and the immediate area
Philip II dies and is replaced by Philip III
1600: Maurice of Nassau’s second victory at Nieuwpoort seals his fame as a military leader
1609: Treaty of Antwerp is signed granting the independence of the Northern provinces

Question 5

Long term causes of the Dutch revolt

Answer 5

Grandees were politically isolated from the government of Philip II. Philip had become over-dependent on Spanish advisors.
Dutch were fearful that their traditional liberties would be eroded away until they had become another Spanish colony
Already widespread disaffection at the level of taxes demanded to fight the French during the 1550’s, a conflict that many Netherlands taxpayers considered to be of no concern to them. Opposition was very high in Brussels.
Anabaptism (seen as an offshoot of Protestantism) was regarded with hostility and suspected Anabaptists were treated violently.

Question 6

Defence of Political liberties as a cause of the revolt

Answer 6

1. Defence of Political Liberties
   - 1565 Segovia letters from Philip to the Dutch telling them to implement heresy laws of be considered guilty of treason.
   - This forced Grandees to enforce anti-heresy laws rigorously. This greatly infringed upon their traditional rights as they were usually more tolerant
   - Revolt started in order to try and regain some of the Dutch nobility’s power

Role of Alva:

• Dismissed numerous nobles and executed Egmont and Horne- were made martyrs- symbols of Alva’s reign of terror and demonstrates the injustice of Spanish rule
• Confiscation of land through the council of troubles led to a serious worsening in political liberties- This role was removed from State Governments and given to Spanish officials
• Grandees blocked the passage of the 10th penny tax but Alva still went ahead and forced towns to collect the tax.
• This intruded on Dutch custom of having the States general and provincial governments making decisions. Led to a worsening of political liberties as the state’s general lost all influence
• Fear new bishoprics would erode their liberties and privileges
• Alva refused to listen to complaints from Dutch nobles regarding his rule leading to rebellion
• BUT: Grandees did help Margret in putting down the first revolt, but she had been liberal with them and granted them far too much toleration

Question 7

Religion as a cause for revolt

Answer 7

2. Problems over Religion
   - Spread of Protestantism into the Netherlands in the 1550s
   - 1559- Philip expressed his intention to restrict Dutch dioceses and introduce more inquisitors.
   - This was met with an immediate outcry from the States-general, hence highlighting the initial tensions

Philip’s desire to enforce anti-heresy laws:

• Increased scale of Inquisition to deal with the growth of Calvinism
• Brederode and about 200 other noblemen, who became known as the ‘Beggars’, demanded the removal of the Inquisition in April 1566 and threatened an armed rebellion if they were rejected
• This demand gained nationwide support and led to outbreaks of Iconoclasm and an increase in Calvinist preaching

By 1566, Calvinism had undergone its initial expansion and now there were about 300 Congregation places- (But this was still relatively small and not decisive)

The work of the hedge-preachers 1566:

• Calvinists in exile radicalised and returned as preachers at the ‘hedge’ services
• These open-air services were illegal but a lack of enforcement allowed numbers to grow rapidly and Calvinists ideas to spread nationally

The attempt to impose new bishoprics 1567:
- Abbots of larger churches felt it threatened their financial position. Feared that it would lead to religious persecution.

Council of Troubles:

• Exacerbated religious problems
• As an inquisition into heresy/treason- 12,000 tried, 9,000 found guilty, 1,000 executed.
• Council of troubles meant to minimise hersey- worsened problems- increased support for Calvinism

BUT: Evidence suggests a number of those involved in the revolt weren’t actually participating because of religious motives but because they were upset with the Spanish rule and joining the iconoclastic fury was a way to vent their anger

Question 8

Economic hardships as a cause for outbreak

Answer 8

3. Economic Hardships
   - 1556- 1% tax on property was refused along with a 2% tax on goods, claiming that they were already contributing 7 million Flemish pounds towards Spain
   - This eventually went through but Philip recalled it to demand another subsidy which caused an uproar
   - Economic discontent in the 1560s due to the depression in the Flemish textile industry as well as the collapse of the Baltic trade due to the war between Denmark and Sweden, which was especially important to Amsterdam.
   - Very bad winter of 1564-65 was followed by a disastrous harvest ➡️ High UE
   - Discontent caused greater support for revolt
   - Philip’s problems with the Turks meant Alva was told to raise money himself and so he introduced a series of taxes in March 1569:
   1/10th penny tax - Permanent tax on all sales of other land
   1/20th penny tax - Permanent tax of 5% on all sales of land-based property.
   1/100th penny tax - One-off tax of 1% of the value of a person’s capital.
   - The 100th penny tax was accepted as a one off, however the other 2 were refused by the States General.
   - By 1571 3.3 million florins had been received.
   BUT: The revolt continues past the one-off economic problems, highlighting more important causes for revolt. Even when the north starts to prosper, they still challenge Philip’s rule

Question 9

Role of William of Orange in the outbreak (1560s - 1573)

Answer 9

4. The role of William of Orange
   He rallied the Grandees in challenging their exclusion by Philip
   1563- Along with Egmont and Horne, they sent an ultimatum to Philip stating that Granvelle must be dismissed or they would resign
   1566- He refused to swear allegiance to Philip and played an ambivalent role in the revolt
   BUT: Also refused to lead the rebels
   1567- He flees to Germany on Alva’s arrival and has his lands and titles confiscated
   After a failed invasion in 1568, he spent time between 1568 and 1572, developing contracts with French Huguenots and the English
   1572- Led a 4 pronged invasion
   1573- Became Calvinist to keep control of the Sea Beggars

Question 10

Role of Margaret of Parma

Answer 10

5. Role of Margaret of Parma (1559 - 1567)
   - Philip’s half-sister and appointed Regent in 1559
   - Poor choice from Philip as she had very little experience with government
   - She immediately struggled controlling the Grandees and angered them over issues such as the Spanish garrisons of the French border with the Netherlands
   - She was easily manipulated by the nobility and granted full toleration under pressure
   - As seen through Granvelle’s dismissal in 1563 who had been Margaret’s chief counsellor
   - 1564- Margaret allowed the council to send Egmont to Spain in order to request Philip to relax his heresy laws. When he refused, this undermined her power and made the Netherlands more unstable
   - April 1566- She was easily persuaded to accept the ‘Compromise of the Nobility’ (An alliance of a league of lesser nobility)
   - This led to an upsurge in Calvinism and Iconoclasm
   - Her relaxation of anti-heresy laws following this also caused further Iconoclasm- Iconoclastic Fury
   - During the Iconoclastic Fury of 1566, in August she sent an urgent letter to Philip stating there were 200,000 men who were armed and mutinous
   - This caused Philip to respond in far too extreme a manner so by the time Alva arrived with 10,000 men in Spring 1567 the issue had been dealt with
   - Resigned 1567 due to Alva’s hardline policies
   Judgement
   - Her weak character and poor leadership was an important cause in the outbreak of the Dutch Revolt as it led to a destabilisation of central power
   - BUT: Could argue she was just trying to keep peace and it was Philip’s fault for appointing her in the first place

Question 11

Tribunal of troubles

Answer 11

6. Tribunal of Troubles
   - A.k.a Council of Blood, Council of Troubles
   - Established by Alva in September 1567
   - Exacerbated religious problems.
   - Aimed to investigate the extent of heresy within the Netherlands and punish any acts that threatened the Hapsburg interest, particularly the Catholic faith
   - Relied on denunciations to operate. Gave rise to the idea Alva was trying to exploit Dutch disunity
   - As an inquisition into heresy/treason- 12,000 tried, 9,000 found guilty, 1,000 executed.
   - Also targeted heretical literature. In Tournai in 1568 there was a public burning of books
   - Council of troubles meant to minimise hersey- worsened problems- increased support for Calvinism
   - Also confiscated lands which took the role away from State governments
   I- n 1568, the council condemned Orange and confiscated all his lands in the Netherlands

Question 12

Role of the Duke of Alva as a cause for revolt

Answer 12

7. Role of the Duke of Alva (1567 - 1573)
   - After arriving in the Netherlands in the Spring of 1567 with 10,000 men he began billeting men in previously loyal towns, against the wishes of Margaret of Parma
   - Military presence created tension
   - On arrival, Alva arrested a number of prominent nobles and had the Dukes of Hornes and Egmont executed (June 1568)
   - He also confiscated William of Orange’s lands and titles and took his eldest son to Spain as hostage
   - He placed troops in loyalist towns surrounding Brussels which eventually turned against Philip as a result
   ‘Council of Blood’:
   - 12,000 people on trial, 9,000 found guilty and 1,000 executed
   However, by the end of 1568, there is little/ no support for a rebellion in Netherlands for William

Now pacified, he had a number of reforms (1569)
- He made a number of unpopular reforms including Philip’s delayed bishoprics plan and the universities. But the most unpopular was in the area of taxation where he attempted to introduce 3 new taxes
Hundredth Penny tax- One-off poll tax
2 other sales taxes
Used troops to collect the tax
These coincided with a severe trade depression and a harsh winter
BUT: Alva arrived to the Netherlands with false information as to the scale of the problem as Margaret of Parma had massively exaggerated the scale of the problem

Question 13

Foreign inteference as a cause for revolt

Answer 13

Philip was compelled to focus all his resources on the defence of the Mediterranean in the 1560s, allowing the Dutch nobles to challenge his rule especially under the weak Margaret of Parma
In the 1560s the Dutch managed to paralyse the new bishoprics scheme and the work of the Inquisition as a well as getting Cardinal Granvelle recalled to Spain in 1563
Dutch nobles were kept well informed of the situation in the Mediterranean and used it to their advantage, requesting concessions from Philip at the most inconvenient times
Huguenot refugees from France influenced the spread of Calvinism in the Southern provinces

Question 14

Role of Dutch nobles in the outbreak of the revolt

Answer 14

The ’Compromise’
Their demands led to an upsurge of Iconoclasm and Calvinist preaching
Grandees = Leading noblemen
Grandees wanted greater religious tolerance and feared civil war and ultimately it was the ‘Compromise’ (a.k.a The lesser nobility) that caused Margaret to relax the anti-heresy laws
Grandees rallied to Margaret to pacify the Netherlands by negotiation but had little impact on the Dutch religious situation

Question 15

Significance of the Sea beggars in the outbreak in 1572

Answer 15

11. Significance of the Sea Beggars
    Catalyst for the start of the 2nd revolt
    Expelled from the waters of England as Elizabeth feared reprisals from Spain - thus they managed to interfere with Orange’s revolt in 1572
    Able to land at Brielle in 1572 where there was no garrison because Alba had to defend the Southern border against a possible French invasion
    Started gaining supported throughout May-June and captured towns such as Mons and Zutphen
    Slowly Northern provinces started siding with the rebels and it started to become more organised by July 1572

Question 16

Role of Philip as a cause for revolt

Answer 16

12. The Role of Philip himself
    - Philip’s absence from 1559
    - His lack of understanding of the depth of feeling in the Netherlands
    - He became politically isolated from the Grandees and gave little consideration to their political interests

His religious policies (Reform of bishoprics, the Segovia letters):

• Increased scale of Inquisition
• 1559- He expressed his intention to restrict Dutch dioceses and introduce more inquisitors. This was met with an immediate outcry from the States-general, hence highlighting the Inquisitions roles in causing revolt as tensions rose rapidly as a result between Philip and the ‘Beggars’ and the States-general.

His decision to send a Spanish army to the Netherlands
- He heard from Margaret at the beginning of April that the revolt had been pacified with the help of the Grandees but still sent Alva with an army at the end of April
- His appointments such as Granvelle and Alba and their policies
- His appointment of Margaret in 1559 was a poor choice as she had had very little experience with government up to this point.
- Granvelle virtually had a monopoly over royal patronage
BUT: He did accept Orange, Egmont and Hornes request to remove him in 1563
BUT: He was facing problems with the Ottomans at the time of outbreak

Question 17

Most important reason for outbreak

Answer 17

1 = Defense of political liberties

• Calvinism remained small and studies showed many in revolt because of oppressive Spanish rule as opposed to a religious protest
• Economic hardships did coincide with revolt, however, does not explain the outbreak in 1572, hence not most important

Question 18

William of Orange as a reason for Dutch victory

Answer 18

William of Orange
Between 1572 and 1576, there is an argument that he single-handedly kept the revolt alive:
- Skillful handling of states
- Figurehead, respectable
- Use of propaganda kept opposition to Philip steady
- Control of radicals so as not to lose support of ruling class
- Looked for foreign allies and particularly new sovereign

Pacification of Ghent 1576:
- High point for Orange
- States came together and the Netherlands was united against Spain
- BUT: He was unable to prevent the subsequent division
Religion ends up dividing north and south provinces
South joins Parma on his arrival in 1579

• Union of Utrecht 1579:
  Signed an anti-Spanish alliance with the Northern provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Friesland and Groningen
• BUT: Southern provinces allied with the Spanish under the Union of Arras (1579)
  Included Artois, Flanders and Hainault

Abilities and contribution as a figurehead, statesman and military leader in the years up to his assassination in 1584 and his importance as a symbol of national resistance thereafter
“When he died the little children cried out in the streets”- Motley
His death was a powerful reason for English involvement

Question 19

Impact of the assassination of William of Orange

Answer 19

Impact of his assassination
His death was a powerful reason for English involvement
His assassination in July 1584 saw the loss of the figurehead for Dutch independence
Parma was able to capture numerous towns in the immediate aftermath
Dutch revolt seemed to be collapsing but Spanish reconquest was not swift enough and the replacement of Orange with Nassau as stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland in 1585 as well as the treaty of Nonsuch reorganised the rebels
‘The ten years of glory’- Period beginning in 1590 when Maurice of Nassau as the military leader in the United Provinces was able to retake towns and cities.
“When he died the little children cried out in the streets”- Motley

Question 20

Role of Maurice of Nassau for Dutch victory

Answer 20

Maurice of Nassau

• His key contribution was as a military leader who was able to deliver a series of victories to the Northern provinces that sent a clear message to the Spanish that whilst they may retain a hold on the south, they could not retake the north.
• Recognised as Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland and Overijssel

As a military leader he:

• Made use of smaller units which gave greater flexibility
• Standardised equipment
• Regular supply depots were established
• Improved training and established discipline
• Reinforced fortifications of border towns
• Exploited the geography of the country particularly well by building a line of fortifications to strengthen the river boundary
• ‘The ten years of glory’- Period beginning in 1590 when Maurice of Nassau as the military leader in the United Provinces was able to retake towns and cities.
• 1597: Maurice of Nassau’s victory in the battle of Turnhout. The battle had a symbolic importance in pushing the Spanish out of a strategically significant position and the immediate area
• 1600: Maurice of Nassau’s second victory at Nieuwpoort seals his fame as a military leader

BUT: Spain were already failing prior to Maurice’s interventions
BUT: Nassau was helped by a stabilizing financial position in the Netherlands and a division of resources between England France for Philip as well as the revolt of Aragon in 1591

Question 21

Role of Johan Van Oldenbarnavelt

Answer 21

Johan Van Oldenbarnevelt
Important through the late 1580s, 1590s and the early 1600s
As an advocate for Holland he was able to gain significant influence by exploiting its economic riches.
Worked closely and effectively with Maurice of Nassau
Was highly intelligent and driven
Takes the lead on policy-making within the states-general and urges the appointment of Maurice of Nassau as stadtholder of the five provinces
Keeps the United Provinces united during the conflict
Holland has ⅔ of the military budget and a large proportion of the troops, which he uses to get other provinces to fall in line
Involved in international diplomacy with both France and England (especially in 1598)

Question 22

Act of Abjuration

Answer 22

Act of Abjuration- July 1581
Formally rejected the authority of Philip and his heirs
Removed his portrait from coins and his name from official documents
The Duke of Anjou as chosen to exercise sovereignty in Philip’s place
But, he was personally unfit to rule and his position was opposed within the Netherlands
Anjou tried to consolidate his position by seizing Antwerp and other towns, but this failed and the ‘French Fury’ prompted his departure in June 1583

Question 23

Role of Alva in the Netherlands as a reason for Dutch success

Answer 23

Duke of Alva (1567 - 1573)
Exacerbated the problem through fear
He was brutal in promising Harlem that if they surrendered, no one would be harmed, but subsequently, he gave the order for 2000 rebels to be executed (July 1573)
This meant towns were fearful of submitting to the brutal Spanish army so continued resisting

Question 24

Role of Requesens in the Netherlands as a reason for Dutch success

Answer 24

Requesens (1573 - 1576)
Little blame can be attached to him
Authorised by Philip to abolish new taxes and the Council of Troubles
Did initially continue to wage war as a result of Alva’s advice
Spain’s weak financial position led to peace negotiations at Breda, 1575 failed as both Philip and rebels not willing to budge over issue of religion
Fighting recommenced
Military collapsed when Philip declared bankruptcy in November 1575- Led to Spanish Fury and Sack of Antwerp
His sudden death in 1576 contributed hugely to the decline of Spanish fortunes
Led to the sack of Antwerp (Over 8,000 killed in 3 days of fighting)→Pacification of Ghent

Question 25

Role of Don John in the Netherlands as a reason for Dutch success

Answer 25

Don John (1576 - 1578)
Much more culpable than Requensens in terms of failure of leadership
BUT: Did have no money and no clear instructions from Philip
Made a reckless decision to break with the States General and abandon the Perpetual Edict of 1577 and bring Spanish troops back to the Netherlands
This ensured that the States General would be driven back into the arms of Holland and Zeeland
More interested in preparing for an invasion in England
Wanted to marry Mary Queen of Scots and depose Elizabeth
Diverted attention from the Netherlands
Died

Question 26

Role of Parma in the Netherlands as a reason for Dutch success

Answer 26

Duke of Parma (1578 - 1592)
Parma is a counter-argument proving that Spanish leaders in the Netherlands were not the primary reason for defeat
Reduced resistance via:
Treaty of Arras May 1579- Agreed to withdraw Spanish foreign troops from the provinces adhering to the treaty
Few death sentences for treason
Continued the attack:
Reagained Brussels (1585) and Antwerp (1585)
Undone by Philip’s insistence on French intervention (1590)/ defeat of the Armada (1588) and lack of money
Maurice of Nassau counter attack- capture of Breda (1590), Zutphen and Deventer (1591) and Groningen (1594)

Question 27

Spanish leadership post-1592 and a judgement on its significance as a cause for Dutch victory

Answer 27

Post- 1592
Spanish leadership in Brussels was in chaos
Between 1592 and 1594, Count Mansfeld and Count Fuentes shared power and they hated each other
They issued contradictory orders to the same troops and appointed different men to the same post
After 1594 Netherlands became a semi-independent state ruled by Isabella (Philip’s daughter)

Judgment
Defeat in the Netherlands cannot be solely attributed to failure of leadership as Margaret, Requensens and post-Parma did little wrong and Parma himself was excellent
Alva and Don John did make crucial mistakes but Philip’s appointments and lack of instructions can be blamed for this

Question 28

Geography as a cause for Dutch victory

Answer 28

6. Geography
   - The resistance of Holland and Zeeland was also partially as a result of the physical and military geography of the north-west Netherlands
   - ‘The great Bog of Europe’- An English traveller in 1652

Spanish weaknesses:
- Distance and problems of supply- ‘Spanish Road’
- Logistical problems
- Meant it took far longer to reach their destination
- Cutting of ‘Spanish Road’ by Henry IV, King of France in 1601. Spain was forced to find an alternative route when the King of France, Henry IV, acquired territory so close to the original route that his forces could cut it
They did this in 1602, holding up Spinola and his troops for several months

Dutch Strengths:

• Islands captured by the Sea Beggars in 1572 were separated from the mainland by deep channels
• Great lakes, rivers and dikes covered North Holland, making it difficult for the Spanish army to operate
• In 1573 at the siege of Alkmaar and in 1574 at the siege of Leiden, dikes were broken in order to flood the fields around the town to prevent the formidable Spanish infantry from launching an attack on the walls
• Dutch in Holland took care never to lose control of the sea
• The war fleet of the Brussels government was defeated in a number of brutal engagements between 1572 and 1574
• Rebels held principal shipyards. Spanish couldn’t rebuild their forces
• Dutch could hence receive reinforcements and supplies from abroad, especially from England and continue vital trade with the Baltics

Question 29

Nature of Warfare (Inc. finances + mutinies + Dutch fortifications as a reason for Dutch victory)

Answer 29

7. Nature of Warfare
   Spanish Weaknesses:
   - Cost of war to Spain was running at 1.2 million florins/ month
   - Philip experienced numerous money shortages resulting in a series of muitines 1573-74 and culminated in his bankruptcy in 1575
   - Unpaid Spanish troops sacked Antwerp in 1576 following Requesens’ death, leading to the Pacification of Ghent→ Now Holland and Zeeland had been joined by all the other provinces in an alliance against Spain
   - Lack of funds led to further mutinies → 37 in the period 1589 - 1607
   - Difficulties of sieges. Harlem siege lasted 7 months
   Brutality- E.g. Sacks of Naarden and Antwerp
   - Spanish army sacked the entire population of Naarden, a small Orangist town in Holland
   - Alva wrote smugly to Philip that ‘Not a mother’s son escaped’
   - Harlem in July 1573, they surrendered and were promised their lives would be spared but were massacred nonetheless.
   - Alva’s brutality only stiffened their resolve

Dutch Strengths:
- Sea Beggars and Naval strength
- Maurice of Nassau’s military reforms
Strength of Dutch fortifications
- Many of the towns in the north, especially along the coast, had been fortified by Charles V
- Many of the more inland towns had walls and defences, which were naturally strengthened during the revolt
- Maurice of Nassau assisted in fortifying border towns
Dutch economic advantages
- One of the most urbanised areas of Europe → War for Spain was a slow one of sieges against fiercely defended towns and cities
- Dutch were wealthy and could support war for prolonged periods of time

Question 30

Dutch economic strengths during the revolt

Answer 30

Dutch Growth and trading:
Province of Holland led the way in trade → This contributed most to the States General’s war budget
Dutch trade with the East Indies and Africa grew in the 1590s
They often preyed on the Spanish and Portuguese seaborne empires
Dutch had access to more valuable trading goods such as spices, silks, American sliver, etc.
Development of the ‘fluit boat’ in the 1590s
Specialised carrier of cargo which maximised loading and minimise costs
Dutch also benefited from hard working refugees
BUT: Cost of war was heavy for the Dutch too who were paying 5 million florins/year in the 1590s and then 10 million florins/year between 1604 and 1606

Question 31

Spanish debts as a cause for failure

Answer 31

Spanish Debts:
War between France and Spain had left Philip was severe debts as he had sent 22 million florins to that area and it had still not been enough
Spanish government in Brussels was virtually bankrupt in 1559
In the period 1561-67, Spain had sent some 5.7 million florins to the Low Countries
No way near enough to maintain law and order
Main reason for this was Philip’s obsession over the Turks
- State bankruptcy in 1575→ Military collapse in the Netherlands in 1576 → Spanish Fury and sack of Antwerp in 1576 + over 170 towns sacked in the loyal southern province of Brabant alone → Pacification of Ghent
Spain went bankrupt again in 1596

Question 32

Role of Calvinism as religious organisations as a reason for Dutch success

Answer 32

9. Role of Calvinism and Religious organisations
   - Spread of these ideas through mass Calvinist preaching in the open air (Hedge-preaching)
   - These mass meetings would then release a wave of Iconoclasm
   - The United Provinces under the Union of Utrecht decided that Calvinism would be the official state religion
   - Calvinism provided an ecclesiastical structure that would help to bind together the rebel churches and towns in a common confession of faith
   - Calvinists were well organised with each church represented by a local classis
   - By 1581, there were 6 of them in north Holland for each main rebel town
   - All of the church structures were put in place at the synod of Emden of 1571
   - Calvinism provided a powerful justification for continuing opposition to the king of Spain

BUT: Destruction of unity following the Pacification of Ghent in 1576 was partly caused by Calvinists
Slightly more Catholic southern provinces were appalled by the behaviours of minority groups of Calvinists that staged coups
They also remained a relatively small proportion of the population of around 10% or so

Question 33

Introduction for why did the revolt last so long

Answer 33

Intro
Lasted from August 1566 to the Peace in Munster in January 1648
By 1574, only about 20 towns with a combined population of 75,000 remained faithful to William of Orange
By 1600, there were seven ‘rebel’ provinces with a combined population of over 1 million
1609: Treaty of Antwerp is signed granting the independence of the Northern provinces
Focus on times the Spanish could have won but didn’t, these can be attributed to the mistakes of Spanish leaders as well as Dutch strengths and foreign intervention

Question 34

Dutch strengths as a reason for why it lasted so long

Answer 34

William of Orange
Between 1572 and 1576, there is an argument that he single-handedly kept the revolt alive
Skillful handling of states
Figurehead, respectable
Use of propaganda kept opposition to Philip steady
Control of radicals so as not to lose support of ruling class
Looked for foreign allies and particularly new sovereign
Pacification of Ghent 1576
High point for Orange
States came together and the Netherlands was united against Spain
BUT: He was unable to prevent the subsequent division
Religion ends up dividing north and south provinces
South joins Parma on his arrival in 1579
Union of Utrecht 1579
Maurice of Nassau and Johan Van Oldenbarnevelt
Can also mention geography and Dutch fortifications

Question 35

Philip’s distractions abroad + Foreign support for the rebels as a reason for why it lasted so long

Answer 35

2. Philip’s distractions abroad + Foreign support for the rebels
   - These distractions arguably caused the delayed payment to his troops in the Netherlands and were an underlying cause to the difficulties in defeating the Dutch revolt
   - Within Europe, Philip was concerned to keep both France and England as weak as possible, sending military aid to the French Catholics in 1563, 1567 and 1569, promising military aid to the English Catholics in 1570-71. It all cost money.
   - He also had to defend the Western Mediterranean against the Ottomans and for most of the 1570s this was a major concern which tied down men, money and material resources in large quantities
   - Usually troops and ships were directed to the Mediterranean between 1572 and 1576, at the expense of support in the Netherlands
   - Virtually no progress was made between 1577 and 1582, whilst Philip was obsessed with the acquisition of Portugal
   - The Treaty of Nonsuch, signed by Queen Elizabeth of England in August 1585, may not have prevented the Spanish army from re- capturing Grave in 1586 and Sluis in 1587, but it did provoke Philip II to transfer his resources from the reconquest of the Netherlands to the invasion of England.
   - Philip’s decision to intervene on the Catholic side in the French Religious Wars after 1589

Question 36

Mistakes of Spanish leaders as a reason for why it lasted so long

Answer 36

4. Mistakes of Spanish leaders
   - Duke of Alva pursued a policy of ‘beastliness’ towards certain rebellious towns
   - His oppressive regime saw large numbers flock to the rebellion
   - Catholic majority of Holland and Zeeland initially did not choose sides but following Alva’s brutal behaviour, they joined up with Orange’s forces
   - In October 1572, Alva sacked Mechelen, which surrendered unconditionally. He was then right to expect other rebellious towns to make peace with him because they did
   - In November, he sacked Zutphen, which also worked in pacifying the strongholds in the north-east
   - But then the Spanish army sacked the entire population of Naarden, a small Orangist town in Holland
   - Alva wrote smugly to Philip that ‘Not a mother’s son escaped’
   - He did the same with Harlem in July 1573, where they surrendered but were massacred nonetheless.
   - Harlem became the last town to negotiate a settlement as both Catholics and Calvinists became terrified of admitting to the brutal Spanish troops

Question 37

Lack of time and finance as a reason for why the revolt lasted so long

Answer 37

6. Lack of Time and Finance
   - The total cost of the Spanish army in the Netherlands between 1572 and 1576, a force of over 80,000 men at times was estimated at 1.2 million florins every month
   - Requesens wrote to Philip in 1574, stating that ‘No treasury in the world would be equal to the cost of this war’
   Siege of Mons in 1572 took 6 months
   Siege of Harlem in 1572-73 took 8 months
   Siege of Zierikzee in 1575-76 took 9 months
   - All were successful, but at these times where the Spanish army was pinned down in the siege, the ‘rebels’ were free to attack and capture other strongholds in the area
   - State bankruptcy in 1575→ Military collapse in the Netherlands in 1576 → Spanish Fury and sack of Antwerp in 1576 + over 170 towns sacked in the loyal southern province of Brabant alone → Pacification of Ghent
   - Siege warfare was unpleasant for troops , yet the inability of government to pay their troops exacerbated problems
   - Led to mutiny in the army
   - The deliverance of Alkmaar (1573), Leiden (1574) and Zierikzee (1576) from the grip of the king’s forces can be confidently ascribed to the Spanish mutinies
   - Also the Dutch were wealthy, with the economic means to carry out war for a long period of time

Question 38

Pacification of Ghent

Answer 38

Pacification of Ghent 1576
Unpaid Spanish troops sacked Antwerp on 4th November 1576 following Requesens’ death, leading to the Pacification of Ghent on 8th November 1576→ Now Holland and Zeeland had been joined by all the other provinces in an alliance against Spain
States agreed to temporarily set aside their disagreements over religion and government to make a determined effort to eject the Spanish mutineers from their lands
First time they had asserted a national consciousness
Don John accepts pacification of ghent with the Perpetual Edict of 1577 and removes mutinous Spanish troops from the Netherlands. But soon Don John loses patience, splits with Brussels and brings Spanish troops back

Question 39

Union of Utrecht

Answer 39

Union of Utrecht 1579 (Northern provinces)
Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Friesland and Gronigen signed an alliance
Anti-Spanish, pro-calvinist defensive union
Clear division between north and south by the end of 1581
Union outlawed some Catholic services and was dominated by Calvinism
Led to the act of Abjuration in 1581

Question 40

Union of Arras

Answer 40

Union of Arras 1579 (Southern provinces)
Artois, Hainault and Flanders combined in a Catholic union
Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma commanded the army that returned at the end of 1577 and was influential in gaining the support of Southern provinces and eventually the union of Arras
Motivated by the growing religious difficulties between the rebels and the remaining 15 provinces
Aimed to defend their faith from the spread of Calvinism since the removal of troops under the perpetual edict of 1577
Break away from States-General and begin negotiations with Parma
Parma starts making progress, capturing Breda, Tournai, Bruges, Ypres and Ghent between 1580 and 1584
Brussels and Antwerp fall to Parma in 1585

Question 41

Role of Granvelle, Requesens and Don John in causing revolt

Answer 41

9. Role of Granvelle/ Requesens/ Don John
   Granvelle acquired the position of the Abbot of Afflighem (usually reserved for Dutch nobility) through which he gained 90,000 florins and greatly undermined the liberties of Brabant
   Where Egmont and Orange would generally lead meetings of the Council of State, Granvelle took over this
   Requensens struggled with the little finance Philip left him, and his weak leadership led to mutinies in 1573 and 74, leading to the Spanish Fury of 1576 and the sacking of Antwerp (turning loyal towns against him)
   Requensens faced defeat at Scheldt and Middelburg, and his untimely death led to the Pacification of Ghent in 1576
   Don John was culpable for the continuation of the revolt with his decision to abandon the Perpetual Edict in 1577 and break with the States-General. This break ensured the States-General would be driven back towards Holland and Zeeland.

Question 42

Role of England and Armada as a cause for Dutch victory

Answer 42

England
1585 Treaty of Nonsuch- Elizabeth agreed to supply 6000 infantry and 1000 cavalry and to pay the States General 600,000 florins/year and to provide a governor general (Earl of Leicester)
Ended up with 8,000 English troops in the Netherlands which alongside annual subsidies helped in sustaining the efforts of the Dutch rebels throughout the 1590s
BUT: Leicester’s actions had limited impact
Defeat of the Armada cost Philip around 30 million florins
Financial problems that arose from the Armada led to mutinites amongst the Spanish troops with many refusing to fight before receiving payment
Armada also forced a large proportion of Parma’s troops out of the Netherlands to Calais
In 1584 Parma had taken Bruges, Ypres and Ghent as well as taking Brussels and Antwerp in 1585. As a result, when Parma was forced to move much of his force out of the Netherlands Parma’s momentum was halted
As a result, dutch rebels able to recover and led to the success of Maurice of Nassau in the 1590s
After the Armada had failed, later in 1588, Parma lost his first siege at Bergen Op Zoom.
Dutch now had upper hand and had a strong economy to capitalise on Philip’s failings

Question 43

Role of Turks as a reason for Dutch success

Answer 43

Turks
Caused huge financial problems
In the period 1561-67, Spain had sent some 5.7 million florins to the Low Countries
No way near enough to maintain law and order
Turkish dimension is crucial in explaining Spain’s financial problems that led to the sack of Antwerp and the Spanish Fury and subsequently the Pacification of Ghent in 1576

Question 44

Role of French intervention and Philip’s renewed interest after 1589 for Dutch success

Answer 44

France
Spain had sent 22 million florins to France for the Habsburg-Valois wars compared to just 5.7 million florins to the Low Countries between 1561 and 1567
By August 1572, the massacre of Protestants in Paris on St Bartholomew’s Day ended hope of French intervention
Risk of Protestant monarch via Henry of Navarre, Philip agreed to pay 50,000 crowns/ month to assist his French allies with the Treaty of Joinville in December 1584
By 1587, he had paid out 1 million crowns in this way
5.5 million crowns by 1595
He also redirected his troops, which had been experiencing success, to France
Act of Abjuration- July 1581
Formally rejected the authority of Philip and his heirs
Removed his portrait from coins and his name from official documents
The Duke of Anjou as chosen to exercise sovereignty in Philip’s place
But, he was personally unfit to rule and his position was opposed within the Netherlands
Anjou tried to consolidate his position by seizing Antwerp and other towns, but this failed and the ‘French Fury’ prompted his departure in June 1583
Philip’s renewed interest in France after 1589
Risk of Protestant monarch via Henry of Navarre, Philip agreed to pay 50,000 crowns/ month to assist his French allies with the Treaty of Joinville in December 1584
He had paid 5.5 million crowns by 1595
In 1589, Philip ordered Parma to move his troops to France
Reduced Spanish presence allowed Nassau to capture towns previously held by Parma
In 1589 Maurice captured Breda and in 1591 he captured Zutphen
This turned the tide towards the Dutch rebels as they had gained momentum during the ‘Ten Glory Years’
Dutch economy was also able to prosper with increased trade from reduced Spanish presence
Important in paying troops and continuing sieges