Plants Flashcards

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1
Q

what do plants produce

A

*Food
*Natural Products (O2, ozone, coal, oil, gas, wood, paper, medicine, limestone etc.)
*Ecosystem services (ex. protection from erosions or environmental disasters)

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2
Q

what two influential scientific inquiries were made using plant models?

A

Genetics: Mendel pea plants
Transposons: McClintock corn plants

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3
Q

when did aquatic plants invade land

A

475 million years ago (Ma)

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4
Q

what made it difficult for aquatic plants to go on land

A

*cells drying out
*physical support on land (air less dense than water)
* harder for sperm to swim-> sexual fertilization/ reproduction

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5
Q

land advantage over water for plants

A

less competition for light on land

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6
Q

green algae and land plant shared traits

A
  • cellulose cell wall
  • chlorophyl a and b
    -sperm with 2 anterior (front) flagella
    *shared common ancestor
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7
Q

preadaptations

A

trait already present that allowed for major ecological transition
*aquatic plants to land plants

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8
Q

preadaptations of chlorophytes

A
  • fresh water habitat; live on edges of pond so as water level fluxuates -> half aquatic and half land

-life cycle that allows dispersal by wind using spores

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9
Q

zygotic meiosis

A

Life cycle of Chlorophylls: multicellular algae (haploid) produces diploid zygote which undergoes meiosis and produces 4 haploid spores

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10
Q

sporopollenin

A

(most stable) biopolymer that covers spores; uv protectant, dehydration resistant, decay resistant

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11
Q

how did first land plants get nutrients with no soil

A

associated with mycorrhizal fungi to help get nutrients from the bedrock

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12
Q

4 main adaptations of land plants

A

cuticle, pores, stomata, embryo

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13
Q

cuticle

A

upper layer on plants that reduces water loss and gas exchange

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14
Q

Pores

A

hole in cuticle to help with gas exchange; water loss

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15
Q

Stomata

A

mechanism that helps pores open and close to control gas and water exchange based on environment/needs

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16
Q

Embryo

A

young sporophyte that is nourished by maternal tissue

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17
Q

Gametophyte

A

-haploid
-makes gametes by mitosis

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18
Q

Sporophyte

A
  • diploid
    -makes spores (haploid) by meiosis
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19
Q

Bryophytes

A

-includes liverworts, mosses and hornworts
-live in moist understories of forest
-very short (no vascular system)
-gametophytes are dominant life stage

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20
Q

Liverworts

A

-pores (NO STOMATA)
-look like earlies land plants

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21
Q

Mosses

A

-have stomata
-economically important for florist trade and making Peat (fuel and alcohol flavoring)

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22
Q

Hornwart

A

long living

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23
Q

Where are the sporophytes on Bryophytes

A

saprophytes stem up from the gametophyte base and perform meiosis to make spores

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24
Q

why did plants get taller/ develop vascular systems

A

to be taller than competitors

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25
Q

vascular system transfers

A

water from root -> leaves
sugars from leaves -> root and stems

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26
Q

do saprophytes, gametophytes or both have vascular systems?

A

ONLY sporophytes evolved vascular systems; sporophyte dominance

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27
Q

Ferns

A

-dominant life stage: sporophytes (diploid)
-gametophyte and sporophyte grow independently; do their own photosynthesis

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28
Q

what are ferns categorization

A

seedless vascular plants

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29
Q

vascular plants with seeds

A

gymnosperms and angiosperms

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30
Q

4 divisions of gymnosperms

A

ginkgoinae, cycads, gnetidae, conifers

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31
Q

Gymnosperms: ginkgoinae

A

stinky coding on seeds

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32
Q

Gymnosperms: cycads

A

-look like palm tree
-very endangered due to climate

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33
Q

Cycad conservation efforts

A

use oxygen isotope that i geographically distinct to see if tree is native to area or was poached and bought

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34
Q

Gymnosperms: Gnetidae

A

-only grows 2 leaves from middle stem
- leaves fray as plant grows old

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35
Q

Gymnosperms: Carnifers/ pinidae

A
  • pine and fur trees
    -largest by volume plant
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36
Q

Angiosperms

A

-most diverse and successful group of land plants
-produce fruit and flowers
-double fertilization
-seeds enclosed in sporophyll

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37
Q

sporophyll

A

leaf modified for reproduction
ex. flower petals are leaves that evolved for reproductive function

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38
Q

types of seed plants

A

gymnosperms and angiosperms

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39
Q

order of trait evolution for land plants

A
  1. alternating generation (gametophyte and sporophyte)
  2. stomata
  3. long lived sporophyte (dominant life form)
  4. vascular system
  5. seeds
  6. flowers
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40
Q

evolution of land plants: dominant life stage

A

started with gametophytes as dominant life stage (bryophytes) -> gametophytes and sporophytes being independent (ferns and seedless land plants) -> dominant sporophyte (seed plants)

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41
Q

how do seed plants reproduce

A

Spores are NOT DISPERSED; spores held onto by female gametophyte and fertilized by male gametophyte (pollen grain)

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42
Q

pollination

A

male gametophyte moves to female gametophyte -> fertilization

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43
Q

gymnosperm seeds

A

naked seed (no sporophyll coding); pollen delivers directly to ovule

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44
Q

ovule

A

structure of sporophyte in which female gametophyte + egg develops

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45
Q

angiosperm seed

A

hidden seed; ovule encased in sporophyll called carpal where pollen is delivered to

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46
Q

why are seeds more beneficial than spores

A
  • can remain dormant and disperse when favorable by environmental conditions

-build in food for seeds in embryo

-targeted dispersal by animals; not just dispersed by wind

-invest more in fertilized ovules -> more resources for next generation of sporophytes

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47
Q

spores in seed plants

A

spores are not dispersed and become gametophytes while still on sporophyte

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48
Q

what are fruits

A

structures derived from carpal tissues; derived from ovary that encloses seeds
*only in angiosperms

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49
Q

what is the female gametophyte called

A

pistil
(includes ovary + style + stigma/landing pad for pollon)

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50
Q

pistil structure

A

*8 nuclei; 7 cells
*large center cell with 2 polar nuclei

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51
Q

what is the male gametophyte called

A

stamen

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52
Q

male gametophyte structure

A

anther (sporophyte where pollen grains produced) held out by fillimants

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53
Q

what does a spore turn into

A

a gametophyte through mitosis

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54
Q

what does an egg turn into

A

a zygote by fertlization

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55
Q

what does an ovule turn into

A

a seed by fertilization

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56
Q

what do ovaries/ carpal tissue turn into

A

fruit through fertilization

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57
Q

Pollination

A

mechanism that promotes transfer of pollen from antlers to the stigma; animals and wind pollinate

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58
Q

how does the pollen find the ovule to make a seed

A

the ovule produces chemical attractants that the pollen tube (growing out of the pollen grain) goes towards

59
Q

double fertilization

A

2 polar nuclei in ovule fuse with 1 sperm to make a triploid endosperm

60
Q

endosperm

A

nutritive tissue that supports the embryo

61
Q

germination: digot vs monogot

A

2 vs 1 cotyledon (an embryonic leaf in seed-bearing plants, one or more of which are the first leaves to appear from a germinating seed)

62
Q

Apical Buds

A

bud on branch or root tip

63
Q

Axillary Bud

A

bud at node/intersection of 2 plances

64
Q

meristem tissue

A

tissue that can differentiate into other types of tissue; produces primary growth

65
Q

primary growth

A

elongates shoots and roots; enables plants to grow in length and branch

66
Q

repeating units of shoots

A

nodes and internodes

67
Q

how is plant growth different than animal growth

A

plant growth is indeterminate(no end)

68
Q

3 zones for root primary growth

A

root cap: zone of cell divison -> zone of elongation -> zone of differentiation: top of soil

69
Q

as roots grow, how do the zones shift

A

the zones shift down towards the root cap; all of the new cell formation and development is happening at the bottom of the root

70
Q

primary growth: 3 tissue types

A

-dermal (outside layer of cell)
-vascular (transport tissue)
-ground (all other tissues)

71
Q

what dermal tissue surrounds primary roots and shoots

A

epidermis

72
Q

primary root ground tissue

A

cortex and endodermis

73
Q

vascular bundle

A

in the center of the root; transports water and nutrients through plant; made of xylem and phloem.

74
Q

difference between dicots and monocots

A

dicots undergo secondary growth and monocots do not

75
Q

difference between dicots and monocots shoot structures

A

dicots: vascular bundles form ring around edge; separate pith(middle) and cortex(outer)

monocots: have no differentiation of ground tissue and have vascular bundles spread all around

76
Q

bundle-sheath cells

A

ring of ground tissue around the vascular tissue (xylem and phloem -> vascular bundle)

77
Q

how is the cuticles made

A

produced by the epidermis

78
Q

secondary growth

A

growth in plant diameter; only after elongation is complete

79
Q

what cells allow for secondary growth

A

lateral meristems; vascular cambium and cork cambium

80
Q

what cells allow for primary growth

A

apical meristems

81
Q

vascular cambium

A

source of new xylem and phloem (inner layer)

82
Q

what is wood

A

xylem produced by secondary growth

83
Q

cork cambium

A

outer layer; protection of plant

84
Q

what produced bark

A

cork cambium; all material outside of vascular cambium

85
Q

what causes increase of girth in trees/plants

A

increased production of xylem; secondary phloem pushed outward by formation of new xylem

86
Q

why might branches have less growth rings than the trunk of a tree

A

branches newer than trunk of the tree -> less growth rings

87
Q

Tropism

A

growth response that results in curvature of the whole plant organism

88
Q

positive tropism

A

curvature towards the stimulant

89
Q

negative trpism

A

curvature away from the stimulant

90
Q

chemotropism

A

Stimulus is a chemical in the environment; ex. chemical ovule produces so pollen tube goes to it

91
Q

gravotropism

A

direction of growth based on gravity
shoots: negative gravitropism (up)
roots: positive gravitropism (down)

92
Q

Heliotropism

A

bud tracks sun; ex. sunflowers

93
Q

Thigmotropism

A

sense structure and wrap around/ grow on it; ex. vines on a building

94
Q

phototropism

A

growth towards or away from light

95
Q

what protein is stimulated by sunlight -> signal transduction pathway

A

phototropin

96
Q

when is phototropin inactive

A

in the shade

97
Q

where is phototropin located

A

in the tip of a growing plant

98
Q

differential activation

A

some phototropins active (in sun) and some not (in shade)
* when sunlight comes from side/ angle

99
Q

what plant hormone is constantly made while the tip is activity growing; shoot -> root

A

auxin; normally distributed equally down stem -> root

100
Q

what happens to axuin when light comes from the side

A

auxin only travels down dark side of the stem causing only that side to elongate

101
Q

what is auxins function

A

cell elongation

102
Q

Acid growth hypothesis

A

auxin binds to receptor and triggers signal transduction cascade -> loosening cell walls -> osmosis draws water in -> cell elongation

103
Q

how does the cell wall loosen

A

auxin binds to receptor that activated proton pumps
-> cell wall becomes more acidic
-> activates expansions
-> loosening enzymes cleave polysaccharides from microfibrils

104
Q

Components of the cell wall

A
  • cross linking polysaccharides
  • cellulose microfibrils
  • cell wall loosening enzymes
  • expansions
105
Q

leaf abscission

A

process of leaves changing color in fall due to respond to changes in light and temperature.

106
Q

why does leaf abscission occur (3)

A
  • chlorophyll production stops
    -nutrience pulled from leaf -> roots and stems to store for winter
    -abscission zone cells divide BUT stop elongating
107
Q

abscission zone

A

where leaf falls off of tree; elongation stops -> tiny cells -> cell walls break down -> leaves fall off

108
Q

chlorophyll pathway

A

stimulated by light -> vibrations -> mechanical energy -> chemical energy; reason why leaves are green

109
Q

cartenoids

A

yellow and orange pigments that aid in light absorption during photosynthesis; present all year round

110
Q

Anthocyanins

A

red pigment in leaves produced after abscission layer forms
*first yellow or orange -> some can change to red

111
Q

how are Anthocyanins impacted by photosynthesis

A

Anthocyanins product of photosynthesis; more photosynthesis plant does -> redder leaves

112
Q

Anthocyanins vs Carotenoids pigment year to year

A

Carotenoids: consistent color year to year
Anthocyanins: dependent on photosynthesis
*more moisture and sun -> redder leaves

113
Q

leaf function

A

absorption of light and CO2 for photosynthesis

114
Q

Types of mesophyll cells; ground tissue in leaf

A

palisade (closer to top) and spongy (closer to bottom)

115
Q

cells that control stomas in the epidermis

A

guard cells (dermal cells)

116
Q

what mesophyll cells do more photosynthesis

A

palisade mesophyll; more chloroplast and less air

117
Q

where are the stoma in the leaf

A

lower epidermis (my spongy mesophyll)

118
Q

function of spongy mesophyll

A

**allows airspace for CO2 to diffuse into the leaf
**backscatter to limit loss of photons
*also does some photosynthesis

119
Q

what wavelengths of light have fastest rate of photosynthesis

A

purple, blue and red

120
Q

air water interface

A

when light hits where air and water meet and some gets reflected back; backscatter

121
Q

backscatter and the spongy mesophyll

A

lots of air water interfaces -> lots of backscatter -> photos back to palisade mesophyll for increased absorption

122
Q

effect on photosynthesis when a leaf is upside down

A

lower synthetic rate because light enters spongy mesophyll first-> increased backscatter -> reflection of light out of the leaf

123
Q

plant growth under experimental conditions light+water, only light and only water

A

light+water: grows and undergoes photosynthesis

only light: does not change in mass

only water (dark): cannot make more energy so undergoes respiration -> loses mass

124
Q

calvin cycle

A

converts CO2 gas into sugars and low energy molecules for light reaction reactants

125
Q

enzyme for calvin cycle

A

RuBisCo: initiated by binding Co2 to RuBP
*C3 photosynthesis

126
Q

what multiple ways can RuBisCo react?

A

Calvin Cycle: Co2 -> sugars
Photorespiration: O2 -> CO2

127
Q

when does RuBisCo undergo photorespiration

A

under high stress environments;
*stomata close to control water loss and CO2 concentration around RubisCO decreases -> takes in O2 more often

128
Q

why did RuBisCO evolve to react with both O2 and CO2 even though O2 (photorespiration) is less favorable

A

at the time it evolved the atmosphere was mostly CO2 so no selective pressure for CO2 over O2

129
Q

C4 photosynthesis

A

concentrates CO2 around RubisCO enzyme
*Kenz anatomy

130
Q

when did C4 photosynthesis increase

A

when CO2 conc in the atmosphere decreased over time

131
Q

krans anatomy

A

chloroplast concentrated in the bundle sheath cells (green ring around vascular tissues) / only in RuBisCO in BS cells (CO2 conc around it)

132
Q

how does C4 photosynthesis pathway differ from C3

A
  • 2 fixations of CO2
  • 2 processes physically separated

*eliminates possibility for photorespiration

133
Q

C4: first carbon fixation

A

PEP-C -> 4 carbon organic acid in mesophyll cell

134
Q

C4 second carbon fixation

A

RuBisCO -> C sugar through calvin cycle in bundle sheath cells

135
Q

where are the chloroplast conc in C3 vs C4 photosynthesis

A

C3: mesophyll cells
C4: cundle sheath cells

136
Q

what is the cost of photorespiration

A

3 mol O2 -> 1 mol CO2 released; 2 mol ATP and 2 mol other high energy molecules used up

137
Q

under what environmental conditions is C3 photosynthesis favored

A

Less stressful (cooler, less intense sunlight

138
Q

under what environmental conditions is C4 photosynthesis favored

A

stressful conditions (hot, intense sunlight, hard to retain moisture)

139
Q

pros of C4 photosynthesis

A

high photosynthetic capacity (high yield, fast growth) and high water use efficiency

140
Q

cons of c4 photosynthesis

A

CO2 pump costs energy (ATP)

141
Q

how does CAM photosynthesis differ from C3 and C4

A

*CO2 is taken in and stored at night (C4 cycle) and used to make energy during the day (calvin cycle)

  • happens in the same cells but at different times
142
Q

what types of plants do CAM photosynthesis

A

-plants in dry environments (CAM reduces water loss): cacti, desert plants, orchid, spanish moss, plants without roots that grow off other plants/ trees

-aquatic plants in lakes with very low CO2 conc; RuBisCO grabs CO2 during the day and PEP-C grabs CO2 at night.

143
Q

suberization/ subrin

A

a process that occurs in plants after leaf abscission, when suberized cells form a sealing tissue