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Biology - Year 2 > Plant biology > Flashcards

Plant biology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the precursor to all plastids called?

A

A protoplastitd

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2
Q

What are plasmodesmata?

A

Thin cytoplasmic strands that connect adjacent cells, similar to gap junctions

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3
Q

Where are apical meristems found?

A

At the tips of roots and shoots

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4
Q

Where do primary tissues of plants derive from?

Where do secondary tissues of plants derive from?

A

Apical meristems

Other types of meristems

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5
Q

What are parenchyma?

A

Unspecialised cells that form most of the ground/packing tissue, perform most metabolic functions

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6
Q

What are collenchyma?

A

Cells with thickened corners which are used for structure/support in young plants, have protoplasmic content (are living)

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7
Q

What are sclernchyma?

What are the two types?

A

Have a supportive or protective function, have thickens secondary cell walls, cells are usually dead and cannot elongate

Sclerids boxier and irregular in shape, thick lignified secondary walls, impart hardness to nuts
Fibers grouped in strands, hemp, rope

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8
Q

Describe the functions of these primary tissues:

  • ground tissue
  • dermal tissue
  • vascular tissue
A

For packing, storage and support, mostly parenchyma

For protection and gaseous exchange

Water conducting and/or sugar conducting

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9
Q

What is the role of the xylem?

What is the role of the pholem?

A

Water conducting, primarily from roots to shoots/leaves

Sugar conducting, primarily from shoots/leaves to roots

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10
Q

Where are tracheary elements found?

Whee are sieve elements found?

A

In the xylem

In the phloem

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11
Q

What are some of the roles of vacuoles?

A

Storage (amino acids, sugars, toxins)

Space filler

Pigment deposition

Digestion of macromolecules

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12
Q

Name the three most basal angiosperms.

A

Water lillies (e.g. nymphaea)

Star anise (e.g. Illicium floridanum)

Amborella trichopoda

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13
Q

What is field capacity?

What is permanent wilting percentage?

A

The % of water a soil can hold against gravity

% water remaining when irreversible wilting happens to a plant in a soil

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14
Q

Sandy soils have a lower capacity to hold onto water, true or false?

A

True

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15
Q

What is the best form of nitrogen for plants to take up?

A

Nitrate ion NO3-

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16
Q

What is the usable form of phosphorous?

What is the source of this?

A

Phosphate (PO4)

The earths crust

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17
Q

What type of mycorrhiza penetrates the cell wall?

What type grows between cell walls?

A

Arbuscular mycorrhiza

Ecto-mycorrhiza

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18
Q

What are epiphytes?

What do they gain?

What adaption do they have?

A

Plants that grow upon plants but are not parasitic

Height

Require high humidity (no water for roots), May trap water in tanks, may collect plant debris and utilise minerals from decaying material

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19
Q

Name some parasitic plants and describe them.

A

Dodder, has no chlorophyll, steals products of photosynthesis

Mistletoe, is photosynthetic steals nutrients from vascular tissue of host

Indian pipe, utilises host’s mycorrhiza

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20
Q

What structures are found in the light absorbing pigments of photosynthetic organisms (e.g. chlorophyll A)?

A

Porphyrin ring - Mg at centre, excitable electrons

Hydrophobic tail - anchors to hydrophobic proteins in thylakoid membrane of chloroplast

Eukaryotes may have essential acessory pigments that increase breadth of usable wavelengths

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21
Q

Photon energy is proportionally related to wavelength, true or false?

A

False it’s inversely related

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22
Q

What do C4 plants do?

What do CAM plants do?

A

Store CO2 in malate in mesophyll cells, CO2 released from malate, and recycled back to mesophyll cells

Open stomata at night, collect CO2, store CO2 in organic acids, stomata close during day

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23
Q

In Gause’s experiment when grown together which species (P. Aurelia or P. caudatum went extinct?

A

P. Caudatum

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24
Q

Give some examples of the ways animals and plants compete.

A

Black Walnut - releases other chemicals into the soil to prevent other plants from growing

Desert ant - throws rocks down the hole of the honeypot ant so it can’t leave to get at resources

Honeypot ant - can fill up abdomen with resources

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25
Q

Briefly describe Connell’s study on barnacles.

A

Chthamalus and Balanus have stratified distribution on rocks. C found higher up than B. When B removed C covered region formerly occupied by B. So C’s realised niche is much smaller than its fundamental niche

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26
Q

What is Batesian mimicry?

What is Müllerian mimicry?

A

Where a palatable or harmless species mimics an unpalatable or harmful one

Two or more unpalatable species (e.g. Cuckoo bee and Yellow jacket) resemble each other

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27
Q

What is a keystone predator?

What happens if a keystone predator is removed?

A

One carnivorous species at the top of the food chain crucial to maintaining balance of a community

Reindeer of St Mathew Island, carnivores removed

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28
Q

What are the three types of symbiosis?

A

Parasitism

Mutualism

Commensalism

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29
Q

What is commensalism?

A

A relationship where one organism benefits and one is neither benefitted or harmed

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30
Q

Where are roots derived from?

What is a taproot?

What is the general function of roots?

A

Primary root apical meristem

One main vertical root which usually develops from the primary root and helps prevent the plant from toppling

Anchorage, water absorption

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31
Q

Where are stems derived from?

What are shoots?

What is the function of stems?

A

Primary shoot apical meristems

Stem + leaves

Structural, supportive, transport of water and minerals

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32
Q

What are the three layers of tissue found in plants? What do they do?

A

Dermal tissue (outer layer), outer protection, made of epidermis in non-woody plants (a layer of tightly packed cells). In woody plants the periderm replaces the epidermis

Ground tissue tissues that are neither dermal or vascular, ground tissue internal to the vascular tissue is pith, external ground tissue is the cortex, includes cells specialised for storage, photosynthesis, support

Vascular tissue, facilitates transport, provides mechanical support, two types xylem and pholem

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33
Q

Describe how a dicot root looks.

Describe how a monocot root looks.

A

Outer epidermis, then cortex. Endodermis forms a circle in the centre, vascular cylinder contains xylem and phloem, xylem forms a cross, phloem is spaces in between the cross

Epidermis on outside, the cortex, vascular cylinder, xylem forms dots, phloem spaces in between, pith in centre

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34
Q

Describe primary growth.

Describe secondary growth.

A

Lengthens roots and stems (increases length)

Widens roots and stems (increases width)

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35
Q

Describe herbaceous dicot and monocot stems.

A

In dicot vascular bundle arranged in ring around the ground tissue

In monocot vascular bundles are scattered throughout the ground tissue

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36
Q

What are the two main cell types of the xylem? Describe them.

A

Tracheids and vessel elements

Tracheids, slindle shaped and have pits that allow water to move through
Vessel elements have partially perforated end walls.
Both are no longer living, only cell wall left

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37
Q

What happens to guard cells when a plant has plenty of water?

What happens to them when a plant is trying to conserve water

A

Guard cells swell, causing the stoma to open due to inner thickened wall of guard cells being pulled apparat

Guard cells shrink and stomata closes

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38
Q

What are the two cell types of the phloem? Describe them.

A

Sieve tube elements and companion cells

Sieve tube elements, tubular cells with sieve plate at end, living cells
Companion cells, non conducting cells that provide mechanical support for sieve tubes, connected by intercellular connections

Nucleus of companion cell proves the metabolic support for the living sieve tubes

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39
Q

Where is primary xylem/phloem derived from?

A

The procambium of apical meristems

The vascular cambium

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40
Q

Vessel elements can be found in gymnosperms, true or false?

A

False they are only found in angiosperms

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41
Q

What is the meristem that causes primary growth?

What are the meristems that causes secondary growth?

A

Apical meristem

Lateral meristems: the vascular cambium and cork cambium

42
Q

What does the vascular cambium do?

What does the cork cambium do?

A

Adds layers of vascular tissue (secondary xylem and phloem)

Replaces the epidermis with the tougher thicker periderm

43
Q

As cork cells mature they produce a waxy hydrophobic material called what in their walls before dying?

A

Suberin

44
Q

What allows living cells in the interior tissues of woody organisms to absorb oxygen and respire?

A

Lenticels, small raised areas that dot the periderm in which there is more space between cork cells enabling living cells to exchange gases with the outside air. Lenticels appear as horizontal slits

45
Q

In the transport of water and minerals from root hairs to the xylem, what is the apoplast pathway? What is the symplast pathway?

A

Apoplast pathway - uptake of soil solution by the hydrophilic walls of root hairs

Symplast - through the cells

46
Q

What is guttation? What causes it?

A

The secretion of droplets of water from the pores of plants, when there is high soil moisture, water will enter plant roots (the water potential of the roots is lower than the soil). Water accumulates in the plant creating slight root pressure. The root pressure forces some water out through leaves

47
Q

What is adhesion? Give an example of where adhesion occurs.

What is cohesion? Give an example of a molecules with a high cohesive force.

A

The attractive force between water molecules and other polar substances,
Between water and cellulose molecules in the xylem cell wall

Cohesion is the attractive force between molecules of the same substance
Water has an unusually high cohesive force due to hydrogen bonds

48
Q

Describe how transport works in the phloem.

A

Sap flows from source to sink, the build up of pressure at the source and the reduction of pressure at the sink causes sap to flow from source to sink

Loading of sugar into the sieve tube at the source reduces the water potential in the sieve tube causing the tube to take up water by osmosis

This uptake of water generates a positive pressure that forces the sap to flow along the tube

The pressure is relieved by the unloading of sugar and the consequent loss of water at the sink

49
Q

List some of the adaptions of leaves:

A

Climbing/support - tendrils

Storage - e.g. Onion

Storage of water - crassulaceae

Protection - cactae

Reproduction - ponsetta (attract pollinators), mother of thousands (kalanchoe daigremontiana)

Feeding - Venus fly trap, pitcher plants, sundew

50
Q

What are the traits of angiosperms?

A

Flowers

Double fertilisation

Fruits

51
Q

Define:

  • hypogenous
  • perigynous
  • epigenous
A

Below gynaecium, ovary superior, above other parts, sepals, petals stamens attached below ovary e.g. buttercup

Superior ovary, petals sepals and stamens attached below ovary but fused to form cup-shaped hypathium, typical in roses e.g. wild rose

Inferior ovary, below other parts, sepals, petals and stamen attached above ovary e.g. honeysuckle

52
Q

What is the microsporangium in the anther?

A

The pollen sac

53
Q

What are the four types of pollination?

A

Wind - 20%, scent/less colourless, lots of pollen produced, reduced/absent petals, examples, catkins, hazel

Insects - 65%, bees most common, nectar, showy petals, scent, colour, UV markers for bees dandelion, carrion flower for flies

Birds - showy petals, often fused to form bent floral tube to fit curved beak of bird, bright colour, nectar, scentless e.g. Columbine flower

Mammals - bats, scent, lots of pollen (bats lap nectar with tongue), light colour, nocturnal pollinators e.g. organ pipe cactus and bats

54
Q

How many megaspores are produced in the ovary?

How many survive?

A

4

1

55
Q

In plants the diploid zygote unevenly divides into what?

A

A larger basal cell divides to produce suspensor (hold embryo in place and provide nutrients)

A smaller apical cell divides to produce embryo

56
Q

What does anticlinal division do?

What does peri-clinal division do?

A

Expands the cell layer

Puts another cell layer on top

57
Q

What is epigenous germination?

What is hypogeous germination?

A

Cotyledons emerge above soil

Cotelydons remain below soil

58
Q

What activates expansins in cell growth?

What do expansins do?

A

Auxins activate proton pumps which cause acidification of the cell wall.

Break cross links between cellulose microfibrils loosening the cell wall fabric

59
Q

What is the triple response?

A

Response to mechanical pressure, ethylene produced, slows stem elongationp, stem curves to avoid obstacle

60
Q

Name and describe the actions of the plant hormones other than auxins.

A

Cytokinins - synthesised in root, stimulate growth and development, work with auxins to regulate morphogensis

Gibberellins - discovered in fungi, produced in young roots and leaves, cause stem elongation, loosen cell wall allowing expansin in, together with auxins promote fruit development (seedless grapes), causes germination

Ethylene - Stress hormone, fruit ripening, produced in response to auxins, triple response, senescence (dying of whole plant), abscission leaf fall change in balance between auxin and ethylene, fruit ripening burst of ethylene cause breakdown

Abscisic acid - slows growth, drought resistance stomata close, seed dormancy

Brassinosteroids - similar to auxins, cell division, seed germination pollen tube formation

Strigolactones - produced in roots, response to low phosphate, seed germination, attract micorrhizal fungi

61
Q

Provide details of two plant responses to light.

A

Germination, red light, photo homes, Pfr is active form, ratio of Pfr to Pr increases in sunlight trigger germination, production of amylase developmental genes

Shade avoidance, chlorophyll absorbs red light so more far red reaches forest floor, in shade Pr predominant, causes growth in height
In light Pfr dominant causes branching, mediated by regulation of gene expression

62
Q

Give an two causes of chlorosis (yellowing of the leaves).

A

Magnesium deficiency - Mg needed as a component for chlorophyll

Iron deficiency - iron ions required as a cofactor in an enzymatic step of chlorophyll synthesis

63
Q

Describe the three distinct layers of soil.

A

A horizon (topsoil) - most active part, zone of physical chemical and biological activity, living organisms, decaying matter (bacteria, protisits, fungi, invertebrates, decomposers)

B horizon (subsoil) - region of deposition, materials leech down, less organic material and weathering than A

C horizon (soil base) - made of partially broken down, rock, where true soil forms from

64
Q

What are loams?

A

Soil ideal for growing with equal amounts of sand silt and clay

65
Q

What are the usable forms of nitrogen for plants?

A

Ammonium ions (NH4+) and nitrate ions (NO3-)

66
Q

Describe the development of a root nodule.

A
  1. Roots emit chemical signals that attract Rhizobium bacteria, the bacteria emit signals that stimulate the root hairs to elongate forming an infection thread
  2. The infection thread containing the bacteria penetrates the root cortex, cells of the cortex divide and bacteria form bacteriods in the cells
  3. Cortex and pericycle fuse to become nodule
  4. Nodule develops vascular tissue that transports nutrients and nitrogenous compounds from nodule
  5. Nodule may grow bigger than root, layer of sclernchyma forms which reduces oxygen absorption and maintains anaerobic environment
67
Q

Describe ectomycorrhizae.

Describe arbuscularmycorrhizae.

A

The mantle of the fungal mycelium ensheathes the root, hyphae extend into intracellular spaces

Fungal hyphae extend into the root, provide large SA for nutrient swapping, hyphae penetrate cell wall

68
Q

Describe ways farmers can increase productivity.

A

Correct irrigation - drip irrigation, less water waste, less salty soil

Fertilisation - agriculture disrupts balance, food eaten and excreted far away, soil becomes depleted, fertilisers enriched in N-P-K, risk leeching

Windbreaks and ground cover, stop dust bowls, no till agriculture

Contamination, metals, bad pesticides, solution GM, less pesticides

69
Q

What wavelength is visible light between?

A

380 - 750nm

70
Q

What is a plants first line of immune defence?

What happens when this is activated?

A

PAMP-triggered immunity (pathogen associated molecular patterns)

PAMP recognition leads to a chain of signalling events that lead ultimately to the local production of broad spectrum antimicrobials

71
Q

What is a plants second line of defence?

A

The hypersensitive response - local cell and tissue death that occurs at and near the infection site, part of effector triggered immunity

72
Q

Describe some chemical defences of plants.

A

Pathogenesis-related proteins (PR proteins), synthesis of secondary metabolite, anti fungal, antibacterial, protein synthesis inhibitors, generate ROS, alter intracellular signalling

Peptides - ricin, endosperm of castor beans, cleaves A from 28S ribosomal rRNA

73
Q

Give some examples of secondary plant metabolites.

A

Caffeine - alkaloid, leaves of tea, beans of coffee, antagonist of brain adenosine receptors, targets enzymes involved in signal transduction, paralyses insect herbivores, enhances honey bee reward memory, coffee inhibit germination, stimulant

Nicotine - tobacco, kills insect herbivores, agonist of post synaptic nicotine receptors in the brain, triggers release of various chemical messengers, stimulant, relaxant, addictive, insecticide and honey bees

Quinine - synthesised from tryptophan, malaria, affects DNA replication, prevents haem detox, antipyretic plant use unknown

Digitoxin and digitonin - found in foxgloves, cardiac glycoside, heart medicine, inhibits Na/K ATPase, leads to Ca increase stronger heart contraction, overstimulation toxic

74
Q

What is systemin? What does it do?

A

Involved in inducible plant defense, 18aa peptide, release at wound, travels through apoplast and pholem, causes linolenic acid release from PM, converted to jasmonic acid which activates an ubiquitin ligase, degradation of transcription repressor&raquo_space; activation of defence genes

75
Q

What is the principle of competitive exclusion?

A

That two species cannot exist in the same ecological niche

76
Q

What is a niche?

A

Odum -“if the habitat is the ‘address’ then the niche is the ‘profession’”

Sum of a species biotic and abiotic resources in its environment

77
Q

How are the Cairo spiny mouse and Golden spiny mouse able to live side by side?

A

Live in the same area but don’t come into contact. CSM is nocturnal, whereas the GSM is diurnal, lab research has shown GSM is naturally nocturnal so it overrides its biological clock in the presence of CSM

78
Q

What is character displacement?

How do Darwin’s finches show character displacement?

A

Differences among similar species whose distributions overlap geographically that are accentuated where species co-occur but minimised where the distributions do not overlap. Indirect evidence of past competition

Small and medium ground finches. When found together the SGF has a shallower smaller beak and the MGF a deeper larger beak.
When on separate islands they have similar beak morphologies.
Beak sizes favour eating different sized seeds

79
Q

What adaption do cabbage butterflies have against mustard oils?

What adaption do monarch butterflies have against milkweed?

A

Evolved the ability to detoxify mustard oils, no competition, exploited niche

Caterpillars feed on milkweed, sequester cardiac glycosides in fat bodies, gives butterfly foul taste, protection

80
Q

Give examples of animals that employ Batseian mimicry.

Give examples of animals that employ Müllerian mimicry.

A

Hawkmoth larva and green parrot snake
King snake (mimic) and coral snake
Hoverfly (mimic) and honeybee
Viceroy butterfly (mimic) and monarch butterfly

Cuckoo been and yellow jacket wasp
Poison frog species

81
Q

Give examples of different types of parasite.

A

Ectoparasite - lives on host e.g. plant parasites and ticks, leeches, lampreys, parasitoids (lay eggs on host)

Endoparasite - Platyhelminthes (tapeworms), nematodes (t. Spiralis and w. Bancrofti causes elphantitis), fungi, malaria

82
Q

Give some examples of mutualism.

A

Pollinators and plants

Aphids and ant farming

Acacias and ants (breaks down ants enzyme that allows ants to break down sucrose, really mutualism?)

Lichens (fungi and Cyanobacteria)

Plants and mycorrhiza (arbuscular and ecto)

Legumes and rhizobium

Leaf cutter ants and fungi (take leaves home to their fungi, ant larvae eat fungus, fungus lives nowhere else, larvae depend on fungus)

Mutualistic gut microbes

83
Q

Give examples of commensalism.

A

Epiphytes e.g. staghorn ferns, bromeliads, orchids

Egrets and buffalo (can be all three though)

84
Q

What is the Lincoln-Peterson index?

A

Population size = (animals marked and released X total samples size on second day)/ recaptured

85
Q

How can you tell dispersion type from sample variance?

A

S2/X 1 is clumped

86
Q

Give examples of different kinds of root.

A

Prop roots - e.g. the arial adventitious roots of maize

Storage roots - e.g. common beet

Pnematophores - air roots, e.g. mangroves, obtain oxygen which thick waterlogged mud lacks

Strangling arial roots

87
Q

Give examples of different kinds of stem.

A

Rhizomes - horizontal shoots that grow just below the surface e.g. iris

Stolons - e.g. strawberry plant, horizontal shoots that grow along the surface, enable plant to reproduce asexually as plantlets form at nodes along each runner

Tubers - the enlarged ends of rhizomes or stolons, for storage e.g. potatoes

88
Q

What types of sieve elements are found in gymnosperms?

What types are found in angiosperms?

A

Sieve cells - long narrow cells

Sieve-tube elements

89
Q

How many petals do monocots usually have?

How many petals do dicots usually have?

A

Multiples of three

Multiples of four or five

90
Q

In flower inflorescences what is a:

  • cyme
  • umbel
A

Influorescent in which the topmost or outermost flower opens first

Flowers that radiate from a point

91
Q

Describe the four classes of fruit.

A

Simple fruit e.g. pea, develops from single carpel

Aggregate fruit e.g. raspberry, develops from many separate carpels,

Multiple fruit e.g. pineapple develops from many carpels of the many flowers that form an inflourescent

Accessory fruit e.g. apples, develops largely from tissues other than the ovary

92
Q

Describe the discoveries that led to the understanding of photosynthesis.

A

Aristotle - plants eat soil!

Helmot - no they don’t they ‘eat’ water

Priestly - mean to mice, living mint restores air

Inglehouse - restoration requires green leaves and sunlight

Blackman - two stages to photosynthesis

Niel - in plants water not CO2 split

Robin Hill - isolated chloroplasts can generate oxygen

Kamen - used 18O to prove water is split and is the electron doner

Melvin Calvin - Calvin cycle

93
Q

Overview the Calvin cycle.

A

RuBP is converted to a 6C compound then 3-phosphoglycerate (rubisco)

ATP phosphorylates 3PG and NADPH reduces it reducing the carboxyl group to an aldehyde. Makes glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

6 G3P made, one makes glucose 5 reform

5X3 > 3X5
3+3 = 6, 6+3=9 unstable > 4+5
4+3=7, 7+3=10 unstable > 5+5

5C sugars converted to Ru5P then 3ATP used to regenerate RuBP

94
Q

In the Calvin cycle what happens when there is not enough CO2?

A

Rubisco is an oxygenase so can react with oxygen

RuBP is split into a toxic 2C compound, passed to the peroxisomes and mitochondria to detox, releases CO2

Photorespiration uses ATP but makes not sugar and is wasteful

Thought to be an evolutionary relic, no oxygen in early environment

95
Q

What are the three meristems present in the early plant embryo?

A

The protoderma - produces the epidermis

The procambium - will form vascular tissue

Ground meristem - forms ground tissue (parenchyma)

96
Q

At what point in plant embryo development to shoot and root apical meristems form?

A

Torpedo stage

97
Q

What makes up the carpel?

What makes up the stamen?

A

Stigma, style and ovary

Anther and filament

98
Q

What is epigeous germination?

What is hypogeous germination?

A

Cotelydons emerge above ground, a hook forms in the hypocotyl which straightens in response to light

Cotelydons remain below ground, coeloptile pushes through the soil and forms a tunnel the shoot tip grows through

99
Q

What is the first thing to emerge from a germinating seed?

A

Radicle (embryonic root)

100
Q

What is bark?

A

Cork layer plus secondary phloem

Biology - Year 2 (9 decks)

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