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Biology - Year 2 > Neuroscience, from Neuron to Behaviour > Flashcards

Neuroscience, from Neuron to Behaviour Flashcards

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1
Q

On a neuron: what is the soma? What are neurites?

A

The body of the neuron

Protrusions from the cell (axons and dendrites)

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2
Q

What direction is anterograde transport?

What direction is retrograde transport?

A

Soma to axon terminal

Terminal to soma

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3
Q

Describe each of these glia cells:

  • Astrocytes
  • Myelinating glia
  • Ependymal cells
  • Microglia
A

Most numerous, fill the interneurone space, regulate chemical composition and mop up transmitter substance

Insulate axons, form the myelin sheath, increase nerve transmission

Line brain ventricles and regulate the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Phagocytose, remove dead or degenerating neuron and glia cells

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4
Q

Out of sodium and potassium which is higher inside and which is higher outside the cell?

What happens when a cell depolarises?

What happens if you have high extracellular potassium levels?

A

Initially sodium is higher outside and potassium is higher inside

Sodium rushes into the cell turning the membrane potential positive

It causes the cell to become more positive inside (so depolarisation)

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5
Q

How do electrical synapses work?

A

The flow of current (from cell to cell through gap junctions) causes a post synaptic potential

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6
Q

Describe these synapse types:

  • Axodendritic
  • Axosomatic
  • Axoaxonic
  • Axospinous
  • Dendrodendritic
A

Axon to dendrite (classic synaps

Axon to cell body

Axon to axon

Axon to dendrite spine

Dendrite to dendrite

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7
Q

Describe the two categories of CNS synaptic membrane.

A

Gray’s type 1 - asymmetrical (post synaptic membrane is thicker) usually excitory

Gray’s type 2 - symmetrical, usually inhibitory

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8
Q

Where are amino acid neurotransmitters found? Give examples of them.

Where are amine amino acids found? Give examples of them.

Where are peptide amino acids found? Give examples of them.

A

In vesicles. Glutamate and glycine (essential), and gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA)

In vesicles. Dopamine, acetylcholine and histamine

These are different to amino acids and amines, they are stored in secretory granules. Dynorphin and enkephalins

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9
Q

What is spatial summation?

What is temporal summation?

A

Where EPSPs are generated simultaneously at different sites

Where EPSPs are generated at the same synapse in rapid sucession

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10
Q

What are the three criteria for a neurotransmitter?

A
  1. The compound must be synthesised and stored in the presynaptic neuron
  2. It must be released by the presynaptic axon terminal
  3. When applied, must mimic the postsynaptic cells response produced by the release of neurotransmitter from the presynaptic neuron
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11
Q

What are co-transmitters?

A

When two or more transmitters are released from the nerve terminal. Will be an amino acid or an amine plus a peptide.

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12
Q

Give examples of catecholiminergic neurons, what are they involved in? What is their precursor?

A

Dopamine, nor-adrenaline and adrenaline. Movement, mood, attention and visceral function
Tyrosine

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13
Q

What does a nissl stain do?

What does a Golgi stain do?

A

Labels DNA and RNA (both are acids), doesn’t show the entire cell

Silver chromate stains the entire body of a small number of nerve cells

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14
Q

What is the size order for microtubles, microfilaments and neurofilaments?

A

Microtubles - largest ~20nm

Microfilament - smallest ~5nm

Neurofilament - middle filament, equivalent of intermediate filament

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15
Q

For each of these ions state whether their concentration is higher inside or outside the neuron:

  • potassium
  • sodium
  • calcium
  • chloride
A

Higher inside
Higher outside
Higher outside
Higher outside

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16
Q

Give examples of neurotransmitters found in these neurotransmitter groups:

  • amino acids
  • amines
  • peptides
A

Glutamate, glycine and GABA

Dopamine, ACh and histamine

Dynorphin and enkephalins

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17
Q

What is a receptor antagonist? Give an example.

What is a receptor agonist? Give an example.

A

Inhibit neurotransmitter receptors e.g. curare

Mimic actions of naturally occurring neurotransmitters e.g. nicotine

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18
Q

Give examples of ACh receptors.

Give examples of glutamate receptors.

A

Nicotinic, muscarinic

AMPA, NMDA and kinate

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19
Q

What do each of these terms used when describing the brain mean:

  • caudal
  • rostral
  • dorsal
  • ventral
  • proximal/ central
  • distal/ peripheral
A

Tail end

Head end

Backside

Front

Closer

Further out

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20
Q

Describe each of these brain imaging methods:

  • computed tomography (CT)
  • magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
  • diffusion tensor imaging
  • PET and fMRI
A

Generates an image of a slice of brain using x-rays

Based on response of hydrogen atoms to a magnetic field, signals are mapped to create an image, more detailed than CT scan

Maps diffusion of liquid (mainly water), can use to map structures of tracts and neural pathways in the brain

Functional brain imaging, used to study blood flow, can use to identify which portions of the brain are involved in what processes

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21
Q

What is multiple sclerosis?

A

An autoimmune disease where the immune system attacks the myelin sheaths of the CNS resulting in weakness and visual problems

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22
Q

What are Gray’s type one synapses like?

What are Gray’s type two synapses like?

A

Asymmetrical (post synaptic membrane thicker), usually excitatory

Symmetrical, usually inhibitory

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23
Q

What are serotonergic neurotransmitters involved in?

What type of neurotransmitter do they use, what is this NT derived from?

A

Mood, emotional behaviour and sleep

Amine neurotransmitter, derived from tryptophan

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24
Q

What is ontogeny?

What is phylogeny?

A

History of an individual from embryonic stage

History of species evolution, from primitive to more complex

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25
Q

What part of the embryo (endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm) does the skin and nervous system develop from?

In vertebrates what does the CNS develop from?

Where does the PNS develop from?

What is neurulation?

A

Ectoderm

Neural tube

Neural crest

Folding to form the fluid filled neural tube

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26
Q

What are the main components of the forebrain (prosencephalon)?

What are the main components of the midbrain (mesencephalon)?

What are the main components of the hindbrain (rhombencephalon)?

A

Cerebral hemispheres, olfactory lobes, lambic system, basal ganglia
Thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland

Contains axons descending from cortex to brain stem and spinal chord, includes tectum and other wall regions

Pons, cerebellum and medulla

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27
Q

What receptors project to the forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain?

A

Forebrain - 1st cranial nerve (olfactory nerve)

Midbrain - 2nd cranial nerve (optic nerve)

Hindbrain - 8th cranial nerve (vestibulochoclear nerve)

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28
Q

In nerve cell proliferation what is vertical cleavage?

What is horizontal cleavage?

A

Where both daughter cells remain in the ventricular zone and continue to divide, proteins notch1 and numb migrate to different poles, daughter cells still have both

One daughter cell moves towards the pia and never divides again, the other remains in the ventricular zone and continues to divide, only have either notch1 or numb, terminally differentiated

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29
Q

What is semaphorin?

A

A molecule that is secreted by future presynaptic cells. It attracts dendrites and repels axons so ensures neurites develop in the correct direction

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30
Q

What is a growth cone?

A

Tip of a developing axon, are hides by cell adhesion molecules

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31
Q

Axon guidance cues

What is netrin?

What is slit?

A

A chemo-attractant, secreted by neurons from the ventral midline of the spinal cord, growth come attracted to netrin

A chemo-repellent, secreted by spinal chord midline cells, receptor called robo, neurites need robo on cell surface to respond, once past midline robo expressed in cells to repel them from midline

32
Q

What are the two types of pathway in apoptosis?

A

Extrinsic - started by another cell, relies on ligand binding to receptor on surface of cell

Intrinsic - signal comes from within, key organelle is the mitochondria

33
Q

How does cytochrome C release trigger apoptosis?

A

Damage to mitochondria causes cytochrome C release into cytoplasm.
Cytochrome C binds to cytosolic receptors, Apaf1 and cytochrome C like to bind.
Apf1 and cytochrome C create a proteasome which allows caspases to be activated
Their binding causes protein conformation change uncovering the CARD (caspase recruitment domain)

34
Q

In a healthy cell what does BCL-2 do?

A

Prevents Bax (a pro apoptotic protein) from opening pores in the mitochondria to release cytochrome C

In healthy cells BCL-2 is bound to Bax

35
Q

In apoptosis what is CAD?

What is PARP?

A

Caspase activated DNase

A polymerase that helps in DNA repair, cleaved by caspases

36
Q

When blood volume or pressure is low what happens in the kidneys and hypothalamus?

A

The kidney secretes renin into the bloodstream
Renin in blood converts angiotensin 1 into angiotensin 2 which excites the neurons in the subfornical organ
The subfornical neurons stimulate the hypothalamus causing an increase in vasopressin (ADH) production and thirst

37
Q

What type of cells control the anterior pituitary?

A

Parvocellular neuro secretory cells (part of the periventricular hypothhalamus)

38
Q

What happens in the hypothalamus and adrenal glands when the body experiences stress?

A

During stress the periventricular hypothhalamus secretes corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) into the hypothalamo-pituitary portal circulation.
This triggers the release of adrenocorticotrophic (ACTH) into the general circulation.
ACTH stimulates the release of cortisol from the adrenal cortex.
Cortisol can act directly on hypothalamic neurons as well as other neurons elsewhere in the brain

39
Q

What does the sympathetic nervous system do? Where do sympathetic nerves originate?

What does the parasympathetic nervous system do? Where do parasympathetic nerves originate?

What is the organ where this is reversed?

A

Flight/fight hormone, relaxes/ inhibits body functions, originate in the middle sections of the spinal chord (thoracic and lumbar sections)

Rest and digest hormone activates/ stimulates body functions, originate in the outer regions of the spinal chord (cranial and sacral regions)

The hearts, sympathetic accelerates heart rate, parasympathetic slows it

40
Q

Diffuse modulatory systems:
Where do neurones that release serotonin project from? What effects does serotonin have?

Where do neurons that release noradrenaline project from? What effect does noradrenaline have?

Where do dopaminergic neurons project from? What effect does dopamine have?

Where do cholinergic neurons project from? What effect does acetlycholine have?

A

Raphe nucleus, heightens perception, reduces apetite, alters mood

Locus coeruleus, arousal, wakefulness, mood, blood pressure regulation, addiction/ gambling

Substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area; movement, addiction, stereotypy, hormone releases, vomiting

Basal forebrain and brain stem complexes; arousal, epilepsy, learning and memory, motor control, mental diseases (schizophrenia, ADHD, depression anxiety…)

41
Q

What part of the hypothalamus do behavioural actions depend on?

What effect does leptin have? Where is leptin produced?

In what area of the brain is leptin detected?

What happens if you lesion the lateral hypothalamus?
What happens if you lesion the venteromedial hypothalamus?

A

Lateral hypothalamus

Inhibits food intake; adipose tissue (produces leptin when “satisfied”

Neurons in the arcuate nucleus

Get diminished appetite for food/ anorexia
Get overeating and obesity

42
Q

What were the Lange and Bard theories of emotion?

A

James Lange - we experience emotions in response to physiological changes in our body e.g. become afraid due to body’s response to a situation

Cannon-Bard - we experience emotions independently of emotional expression (dissociations), emotions produced when signals reach the hypothalamus either directly from sensory receptors or by descending cortical input

43
Q

What are the two hypothesises of depression?

What are the two hypothesises for schizophrenia?

A

Monoamine theory - reduced activity of central noradrenergic and/or serotonergic systems, drugs that inhibit MAO (which destroys serotonin) treats depression
Diathesis-stress hypothesis - HPA axis (involved in anxiety) could induce anxiety first then depression, comorbidity between anxiety and depression

Dopamine hypothesis - overactive dopamine system
Glutamate hypothesis - ketamine induces psychosis, ketamine blocks NMDA glutamate receptors, suggests lowered glutamate signalling may underline neurobiology of schizophrenia

44
Q

What is the difference between structural and functional brain imaging?

A

Structural - based on tissue density, static image, unrelated to brain function

Functional - based on activity levels, blood oxygenation, glucose uptake, electrical and magnetic changes, related to brain function

45
Q

What are the three type of studies that provide evidence that the SCN is the centre of the circadian clock?

A

Lesion studies - lesions eliminate circadian behavioural rythmicity

Transplant studies - Tau mutant hamster: lesion SCN, transplant foetal tissue of mutant genotype into wild type SCN lesioned host

In vitro studies - block circadian pattern with TTX, when washed out rhythm returns

46
Q

What are the two hypothesises used to explain the default mode network of the brain?

A

The sentinel hypothesis - at rest brain is monitoring environment

Internal mentation hypothesis - supports thinking and remembering, like daydreaming, imaging: state like remembering

47
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

Conditioned response to a neutral stimulus after having been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus

48
Q

What is retrograde amnesia?

What is anterograde amnesia?

A

Memory loss for prior events

Inability to form new memories

49
Q

What is Hebb’s rule?

A

Neurons activated together become associated

50
Q

What are the two types of memory?

A

Declarative memory (explicit memory) - remembering facts/ episodes, remembering events

Non-declarative memory (implicit memory) - procedural: skills playing piano, habits taking same route to uni, classical conditioning

51
Q

Describe the mode of operation of a G-protein?

A

In its inactive state the alpha subunit of a G protein is bound to GDP.

When activated by a G-protein-coupled receptor the GDP is exchanged for GTP.

The activated G-protein splits and G-alpha can go on to activate the effector protein

52
Q

What information do the dorsal roots of the spinal chord carry. What information do the ventral roots of the spinal chore carry?

A

Dorsal - bring information into the spinal chord

Ventral - carry info away from the spinal chord

53
Q

What are the three layers of the meninges that lies between the brain and skull to protect the brain?

Where is cerebrospinal fluid secreted from?

A

Dura mater, arachnoid membrane and pia mater

Choroid plexus

54
Q

What are the three zones of the hypothalamus?

What are some of the main features of the peri ventricular hypothalamus?

A

From out to in:
Lateral
Medial
Periventricular

Contains the SCN, cells that control the ANS and neurosecretory cells

55
Q

What is different. Between the posterior and anterior pituitary?

What is the name of the neurons that project from the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary?

What is the name of the neurons that project from the hypothalamus to the blood supply that connects to the anterior pituitary?

A

Posterior pituitary is part of the brain
Anterior pituitary is an endocrine gland

Mangnocellular neurosecretory cells

Parvocellular neurosecreoty cell

56
Q

What is the primary transmitter of peripheral autonomic neurones?

What type of response do nicotinic ACh receptors produce?

What type of response do muscarinic ACh receptors produce?

A

Acetlycholine

Fast excitory post synaptic potential

Metabotropic (G-protein coupled) receptors, slow EPSPs and IPSPs

57
Q

What do diffuse modulatory systems do?

Give examples of two types of drug that affect the diffuse modulatory system.

A

Perform regulatory functions
Four examples we look at are metabotropic. They arise from the brain stem

Hallucinogens e.g. LSD (which has a chemical structure similar to serotonin) it’s thought LSD causes hallucinations by replacing serotonin in areas concerned with perception

Stimulants e.g. Cocaine, amphetamine affect dopaminergic and noradrenergic systems, block re uptake of catecholamines, increase alertness and vigilance

58
Q

Describe the effect of elevated leptin (anorexic response) levels on the hypothalamus (e.g. after feasting).

A

Leptin molecules released into the bloodstream by fat cells activate leptin receptors on neurones of the arcuate nucleus.
The arcuate neurons contain the peptide neurotransmitters alpha-MSH and CART
TSH and ACTH released which raise metabolic rate
Stimulates the lateral hypothalamus to inhibit feeding behaviour

59
Q

Describe the affects of decreased leptin (orexigenic response) on the hypothalamus.

A

A fall in leptin turns off the responses mediated by the alpha-MSH/CART neurons .
It also stimulates another type of arcuate nucleus neuron which contain a mix of peptides (NYP and AgRP)
These peptides inhibit the release of TSH and ACTH.
Activate neurons in the lateral hypothalamus to initiate feeding behaviour

60
Q

What neurotransmitter plays a role in the reward pathway?

What neurotransmitter links mood and food?

A

Dopamine

Serotonin

61
Q

What is the Klüver-Bucy syndrome?

What is the effect of lesioning the amygdala?

What is the effect of stimulating the amygdala?

A

Removal of the temporal lobe in rhesus monkey’s caused a reduction in fear and aggression

Similar symptoms to Klüver-Bucy syndrome, reduced fear and aggression, inability to recognise fearful facial expressions

Increased vigilance/attention, causes fear and agression

62
Q

Which type of aggression, predatory or affective is more associated with stimulation of the ANS?

What effect do lesions to the amygdala have on social hierarchy?

What affect did removal of the cerebral hemisphere have in cats? What other lesions cause sham rage?

A

Affective aggression is associated with stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system
Predatory aggression is not

Rhesus monkey’s lesioned in the amygdala fell to the bottom of the hierarchy

Caused sham rage, aggression in response to a stimulus that would not normally cause aggression
Lesions to the anterior hypothalamus, sham rage is not seen if the posterior hypothalamus is lesioned

63
Q

What is the effect of blocking serotonin levels on aggression?

What affect do serotonin levels have on dominance?

A

Causes increased aggression

Reduced serotonin causes subordinance

64
Q

Give examples of mental illnesses that relate to biological/physiological causes?

A

General parthesis of the insane - caused by treponema pallidum

Vitamin B deficiency - linked with agitation and depression

OCD - linked with autoimmune response triggered by strep throat

65
Q

What regulates the hypothlamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis?

What can continuous exposure to cortisol do to hippocampal neurones?

A

The amygdala and hippocampus. Amygdala action activates the HPA axis, hippocampus activation inhibits the HPA axis. The hippocampus also normally plays a role in the feedback mechanism cortisol activates the hippocampus to inhibit the HPA axis

Cause them to wither and die

66
Q

What do benzodiazepines do?

What are SSRIs commonly used to treat?

What affect do SSRIs have on glucocorticoid receptors?

A

Bind to a site on the GABA receptor making it more responsive to GABA (an inhibitory neurotransmitter)

Depression and anxiety

Cause an increase in glucocorticoid receptors in the hippocampus, this may act to dampen anxiety by enhancing the HPA feedback mechanism

67
Q

What is lithium a good treatment for?

A

Bipolar depression

68
Q

What is an aphasia?

A

Partial or complete loss of language ability following brain damage

69
Q

What is attention?

A

The ability to focus on one aspect of sensory input

70
Q

What dies fasiculation do?

A

Causes neurites growing in parallel to stick together, created by cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) on the surface

71
Q

Why don’t mammalian CNS neurons regenerate?

A

The mammalian CNS is not a permissive environment for axon growth.

72
Q

What is non associative learning?

A

A change in behavioural response that occurs over time in response to a single type of stimulus. There are two types habituation (ignoring a stimulus that lacks meaning) and sensitisation (strong reaction e.g. to footsteps in a dark alley)

73
Q

What is associative learning?

A

Altering behaviour by the formation of associations between events two types: classical conditioning (conditioned response to neutral stimulus after it’s paired with an unconditioned stimulus) and instrumental conditioning (response followed by a reinforcement, learn a behaviour has consequences)

74
Q

Describe how sound travels through the inner ear?

A

Sound enters the outer ear through the auditory canal causing the tympanic membrane (eardrum) to vibrate.
The vibration is transmitted and amplified through air filled middle ear by three ossicles (malleus, incus and stapes) causing a vibration in the oval window.
Fluid in choclea vibrates and becomes a nerve signal by triggering auditory receptors.
Hair cell vibration triggers neurons.

75
Q

What causes sham rage?

How can sham rage be reversed?

What happened when an electrode was placed into the hypothalamus of cats and stimulated?

A

Lesioning of the cerebral cortex

By widening the lesion to include the (posterior) hypothalamus

That cats displayed a variety of behaviours depending on where the electron was placed, including fear and anger

Biology - Year 2 (9 decks)

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