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Spring 2023 > Plant Bio Quiz 1 > Flashcards

Plant Bio Quiz 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Plants, like most animals, are what?

A

multicellular eukaryotes

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2
Q

Fungi & animals are what?

A

sister groups

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3
Q

Are fungi and plants close in lineage?

A

No

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4
Q

What is the common ancestor of land plants?

A

green algae

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5
Q

What is the evolutionary order of plants?

A

(1) land plants - (2) vascular plants - (3) seed plants - (4) flowering plants

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6
Q

What is the size of the largest flower?

A

1m

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7
Q

What is the age of the longest living plant?

A

5000 years

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8
Q

How big is the largest organism?

A

> 100m

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9
Q

Plants produce what?

A

oxygen, sugars (chemically stored energy), and useful chemicals

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10
Q

Joseph Priestly 1770s experiment/discovery?

A

animals need oxygen to live. An animal kept in a sealed container would eventually pass out; “injured” air

He also recognized that plants have the ability to “restore” the air.

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11
Q

Plants convert what into sugars through the process of photosynthesis?

A

CO2

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12
Q

Why do plants produce an assortment of chemicals?

A

protection/defense

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13
Q

Why study plants?

A
  • help conserve endangered plants & environments
  • learn more about the natural world
  • better harness the abilities of plants to provide us with food, medicines, and energy
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14
Q

Robert Hooke (1965) first discovered cells in what?

A

plants

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15
Q

What did Robert Hooke call plant cells?

A

cork cells

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16
Q

Plants first purified what?

A

viruses

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17
Q

What was discovered in plants (related to viruses)?

A

Transposable elements

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18
Q

Mendel’s studies of peas revealed what?

A

laws of inheritance

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19
Q

What is the major objective of plant science?

A

increase food production

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20
Q

Globally, how many people per year are chronically hungry?

A

1 billion

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21
Q

How can plant scientists contribute to the alleviation of hunger?

A

By developing plants that
- are drought or stress tolerant
- require less fertilizer or water
- are resistant to pathogens
- are more nutritious

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22
Q

Plants provide us with more than food. What are some examples of other provisions?

A
  • plants are sources of novel therapeutic drugs
  • plants provide better fibers for paper or fabric
  • plants are sources of biorenewable products
  • plants provide renewable energy sources
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23
Q

What is Willow’s (Salix) medical contribution?

A

bark as a source of aspirin

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24
Q

What is foxglove’s (Digitalis purpurea) medical contribution?

A

source of digitalis (treatment for cardiac problems)

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25
Q

What is Pacific yew’s (Taxus brevifolia) medical contribution?

A

source of taxol (treatment of cancer)

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26
Q

What is coffee (Coffea arabica) and tea’s (Camellia sinensis) medical contribution?

A

sources of caffeine (stimulant)

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27
Q

Wood is primarily composed of what?

A

plant cell walls

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28
Q

What is everywhere?

A

plant wood and fibers

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29
Q

Plants can be a source of what?

A

biofuels; sugars, starches & cellulose can be fermented into ethanol

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30
Q

Plants can be a source of biodiesel. How is biodiesel produced?

A

from rape, algae and soybeans

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31
Q

Plants can be sources of what? Think plastics.

A

biorenewable and biodegradable resources

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32
Q

One more time, why study plants?

A

studying plants increases our knowledge about life in general and helps us to work with them to keep us fed, healthy, sheltered, clothed, and happy

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33
Q

What are the Plant cell structures shared with most eukaryotes (8)?

A
  1. lipid bilayer plasma (cell) membrane
  2. Cytoplasm (cytosol)
  3. Membrane bound nucleus
  4. Rough ER & ribosomes
  5. Smooth ER
  6. Mitochondria
  7. Golgi apparatus (dictyosomes)
  8. Microbodies (peroxisomes & glyoxysomes)
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34
Q

Ultra thin fluid bilayer comprising:
- hydrophobic tails
- Hydrophilic heads
- extrinsic proteins
- intrinsic proteins

A

Lipid bilayer cell membrane

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35
Q

All of the contents of the cell including all organelles and nucleus

A

cytoplasm

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36
Q

the liquid component of the cytoplasm: a rich broth of macromolecules and smaller organic molecules, including glucose and other sugars, amino acids and nucleic acids, fatty acids, and a diversity of ions

A

Cytosol

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37
Q

Houses the chromosomes and machinery for replication and transcription and includes a nucleolus

Enveloped by a double membrane, the outer of which is continuous with the membranes of the ER

A

Nucleus

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38
Q

A region within which ribosomal RNA is concentrated and site where ribosomes are initially constructed before export to cytoplasm

A

nucleolus

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39
Q

has ribosomes on it’s surface; translation of mRNAs/ protein synthesis occurs at the ribosomes and polypeptides are concentrated and trafficked here

A

rough ER

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40
Q

lacks ribosomes and is the location of lipid synthesis and membrane assembly; as new membrane is assembled, vesicles are pinched off and transported to target sites, where membrane fusion occurs

A

Smooth ER

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41
Q

membrane rich organelle where ATP is produced and oxygen consumed

A

mitochondria

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42
Q

Glycolysis occurs where and produces what?

A

cytoplasm; 2 pyruvate

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43
Q

What is imported into the mitochondrion?

A

pyruvate

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44
Q

The citric acid cycles oxidizes pyruvate into what?

A

CO2 and energized electrons

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45
Q

electrons are passed along an electron transport chain producing ATP and reducing O2 to H2O

A

oxidative phosphorylation

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46
Q

An extension of the ER whereby proteins are packaged, modified and transported intracellularly to destination

A

Golgi apparatus

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47
Q

refers to an individual stack with the Golgi apparatus

A

dictyosome

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48
Q

small spherical vesicles scattered throughout the cytoplasm and the sites of specialized reactions utilizing O2 and H2O2

A

microbodies

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49
Q

associated with chloroplasts and mitochondria; they detoxify toxic byproducts of metabolism

A

Peroxisomes

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50
Q

convert stored fats into sugars and are important during seed germination (plants only)

A

glyoxysomes

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51
Q

Animal cell vs Plant cell: Central vacuole

A

Animal cell: absent
Plant cell: present

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52
Q

Animal cell vs Plant cell: Chloroplast

A

Animal cell: absent
Plant cell: present

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53
Q

Animal cell vs Plant cell: Cell wall

A

Animal cell: absent
Plant cell: present

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54
Q

Animal cell vs Plant cell: Endoreduplication

A

Animal cell: rare
Plant cell: common

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55
Q

Animal cell vs Plant cell: Cytokinesis

A

Animal cell: cleavage furrow
Plant cell: Cell plate

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56
Q

Animal cell vs Plant cell: cell signaling

A

Animal cell: Gap junctions
Plant cell: plasmodesmata

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57
Q
  • often constitutes 80% or more of intracellular space of plant cell
  • pushes the cytoplasm & organelles into a thin layer around the perimeter of cell
  • contains water & solutes
  • maintains turgor pressure within cell & thus supports the plant
A

Central Vacuole

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58
Q

What happens when the central vacuole loses water?

A

the plant can no longer support itself

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59
Q
  • Site of pigments that absorb light energy; energy is then used to fix CO2 to make sugars
  • much larger than mitochondria
  • contains complex internal membranes which are important to light capture & electron transfer
  • storage organelles for starches
  • endosymbiotic origin (prokaryotic cyanobacteria)
A

chloroplasts

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60
Q
  • complex multi-layered structure produced to exterior of cell membrane
  • fixes plant cells inplace creating a kind of endo-skeleton for a plant
  • can be primary or secondary
A

Cell wall

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61
Q
  • present for every plant cell
  • comprises complex fibers (consisting of cellulose & hemicellulose) embedded within pectin
  • strong but flexible; allows growth & expansion of cells
A

primary cell wall

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62
Q
  • layer present between two adjacent plant cells
  • comprises pectins, jelly like polysaccharids
  • glues adjacent cells together
A

Middle Lamella

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63
Q
  • found to the interior of primary cell wall; thicker & stronger
  • produced only after the growth & expansion of primary wall has stopped
  • comprises a complex mix of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin
  • produced by a diversity of specialized cell types, including: water conducting cells (xylem) & support sclerenchyma cells (fibers & sclerids)
  • major component of wood & plant fibers
  • can have a very complex multi-layered structure
  • can greatly reduce the volume of cell contained within cell membrane
A

secondary cell walls

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64
Q

Plant and animal cells are similar in that both have:

A

a) same fundamental chromosomal structure
b) same cell cycle (G1, S, G2, mitosis/cytokinesis)
c) same steps in cell division; mitosis (PPMAT)

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65
Q
  • instead of cell entering into G1/G0 after mitosis as a mature cell, the cell enters into S (synthesis) and replicates its DNA without mitosis & cytokinesis
  • this may occur multiple times to greatly increase the size of the nucleus in the particular cell
  • important in hair cells, glandular cells, nectar producing cells; have extremely rapid and intense metabolism
A

endoreduplication

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66
Q

Daughter cell separation

A

cytokinesis

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67
Q

Cytokinesis in plants: following telophase of mitosis a what forms?

A

phragmoplast

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68
Q

a group of short microtubule fibers that form as the metaphase plate

A

phragoplast

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69
Q

Cytokinesis in plants: What fibers trap dictyosome vesicles that contain materials for building new cell wall

A

phragomoplast’s microtubule fibers

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70
Q

Cytokinesis in plants: What coalesces to form a large plate vesicle within which cell wall and middle lamella are assembled?

A

dictyosome vesicles

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71
Q

Cytokinesis in plants: what comprises the cell plate?

A

phragmoplast, vesicle & cell wall

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72
Q

Cytokinesis in plants: What expands laterally, extending toward the parental cell wall?

A

cell plate

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73
Q

Cytokinesis in plants: What is the final step?

A

fusion
- the membranes of the plate vesicle fuse with the parental margins to yield a new cell membrane
- the new cell wall components inside the vesicle fuses with parental wall to complete wall formation

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74
Q

Why is cell to cell communication different in plants vs animals?

A

because of their cell wall & middle lamella

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75
Q
  • channels of communication via small molecules
  • tightly regulated
  • animal cell-to-cell communication
A

gap junctions

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76
Q
  • directs communication between living plant cells
  • small channels through the cell wall layers that connect adjacent cells
A

plasmodesmata

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77
Q

what passes through the plasmodesmata to create a contiguous system?

A

plasma membrane, cytoplasm & sections of the ER
- creates the “symplast”

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78
Q

Plasmodesmata are especially important in forming connections between what?

A

phloem cells

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79
Q

cells that specialize to transport sugars and solutes through the plant body

A

phloem cells

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80
Q

Aggregations of plasmodesmata form what?

A
  1. Sieve areas
  2. Sieve plates
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81
Q

Patches of plasmodesmata

A

Sieve areas

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82
Q

large sections of plasmodesmata spanning the entire cross-section of a phloem cell

A

Sieve plates

83
Q
  • refers to characteristics of plants that are herbaceous (non-woody)
  • growth occurs from apical meristems
A

primary growth

84
Q

herbaceous plants

A
  • annual plants
  • short lived perennial plants
85
Q

All growth of herbaceous plants occurs from apical meristems located:

A
  1. at the tips of shoots
  2. tips of roots
    (intensely dividing regions)
86
Q

Herbaceous plants lack what?

A

wood & bark

87
Q

characteristic of plants that have woody tissue

A

secondary growth

88
Q

Stems, leaves & roots all share a basic, simple organization. All plant cells in these structures belong to just three classes based on the nature of their cell wall. What are these classes?

A
  1. Parenchyma
  2. Collenchyma
  3. Sclerenchyma
89
Q
  • cells have only thin primary walls
  • most common cell type of plants
  • metabolically active & serving diverse functions
  • remains alive at maturity (has cytoplasm & nucleus)
A

parenchyma

90
Q

a mass of parenchyma cells

A

parenchyma tissue

91
Q

Par- =

A

beside

92
Q
  • enchyma =
A

filled in/poured in

93
Q

Specialized parenchyma types include:

A
  1. chlorenchyma
  2. glandular cells
  3. transfer cells
  4. phloem
94
Q
  • include green-photosynthetic parenchyma cells of leaves
  • the thin walls allow light & carbon dioxide to pass through the chloroplast
  • packed with chloroplast
A

Chlorenchyma cells (chlor = color)

95
Q

the chloroplast rich cells of a leaf & the specialized pigmented cells (petals & fruits) of plants are both what?

A

chlorenchyma cells

96
Q

specialized parenchyma that secrete substances such as nectar, fragrances, mucilage, resins, oils

A

Glandular cells

97
Q
  • mediate short-distance transport of materials in high volumes
  • have a large, extensive plasma membrane with numerous molecular pumps
  • function e.g: influx of sugars into fruits or excretion of salts in high-salt adapted plants
A

transfer cells

98
Q

parenchyma tissue that conducts nutrients over long distances

A

phloem

99
Q

Metabolically, parenchyma cells are what?

A

inexpensive to build
- little glucose expended in constructing primary cell walls
- leaves = energetically cheap (almost entirely parenchyma)

100
Q

Secondary cell walls require what?

A

logs of glucose to make cellulose and hemicellulose (polymers of glucose)

101
Q
  • have a primary cell wall that is thin in some areas and thickened in others
  • allows flexibility & support
  • no secondary wall
  • lumen is relatively large (because no secondary wall)
A

Collenchyma (Coll- = glue)

102
Q

Where are collenchyma cells found?

A
  • beneath the stem and leaf epidermis
  • supporting vascular bundles
103
Q
  • has a primary wall & thick secondary wall that is usually heavily lignified
  • elastic but strong
  • once mature, the cell dies, leaving just the still functional cell walls
A

Sclerenchyma

104
Q

What are the two types of sclerenchyma?

A

1) mechanical
2) conductive

105
Q
  • a class of complex organic polymer
  • particularly important in the formation of cell walls, especially in wood and bark
  • lends rigidity and flexibility & does not rot easily
  • made by cross-linking phenolic precursors
A

lignin

106
Q

Mechanical (nonconducting) sclernechyma types

A

1) fibers
2) Sclereids

107
Q
  • long and tough
  • important structural component of stems
  • may form bundles in tough leaves
  • mechanical (nonconducting) sclernechyma
A

Fibers

108
Q
  • short, isodiametric (cuboidal), inflexible & brittle
  • Mechanical (nonconducting) sclerenchyma
A

Sclereids

109
Q

Conducting Sclerenchyma

A

Xylem

110
Q
  • transport water
  • dead at maturity & have thick walls that provide support while also conducting water
A

Xylem

111
Q

Cells of the vascular system

A

phloem & Xylem

112
Q

Types of Xylem

A

Tracheids & Vessel elements

113
Q

Outline: Primary plant body

A

shoots (stem & leaves), Roots, Meristems

114
Q

Outline: Plant tissues

A

(1) Epidermis
- trichomes
- stoma
(2) Cortex
(3) Vascular tissue: vascular bundles
- Xylem: Tracheids & Vessel elements
- Phloem

115
Q

consists of stems and leaves

A

shoot system

116
Q

anchors the plant and provides water and nutrients for the shoot system

A

root system

117
Q

Primary growth occurs where?

A

at the terminal buds & the axillary buds

118
Q

A bud is a what?

A

embryonic shoot

119
Q

a region of cells that divide to produce new growth and tissues

A

meristem

120
Q

A bud is an embryonic shoot:

A
  • protected by scale or bracts (modified leaves)
  • including a meristem
121
Q

What contains a shoot apical meristem?

A

terminal bud

122
Q

Why is the terminal bud the only bud that grows?

A

The terminal bud secretes a hormone that blocks axial bud growth

123
Q

Axillary buds are what because of the terminal bud?

A

dormant

124
Q

For most plants, most axillary buds are not needed as long as what?

A

the apical meristem is healthy

125
Q

If the apical meristem is killed, what happens?

A

axillary buds become active & replace it by growing a new shoot
- hormone is no longer inhibiting axillary bud growth

126
Q
  • outermost surface of a herbaceous stem
  • single layer of parenchyma cells
  • all interchange of material between a plant and its environment occurs by means of this
  • functions in protection of the stem & preventing water loss
A

epidermis

127
Q

Outer epidermal walls are coated with waxy, waterproof what?

A

cutin

128
Q

Cutin builds up to form what layer?

A

the cuticle

129
Q

What does the cuticle do?

A

prevents desiccation but also prevents gas exchange; no CO2 can get in, no O2 can get out

130
Q

gas exchange is allowed by what?

A

stomates

131
Q

stoma occur where?

A

on leaf surfaces & stems

132
Q

Stoma include:

A

1) 2 guard cells
2) the stomatal pore

133
Q

the hole between the guard cells through which gases can pass into the stem interior

A

the stomatal pore

134
Q

Guard cells open and close the pore based on what?

A

tugor pressure within the cells

135
Q

High turgor pressure does what to the stoma?

A

Opens it by causing the guard cells to bend

136
Q

Low turgor pressure does what to the stoma?

A

Closes it; guard cells are not forced open

137
Q

Guard cells have _ around the pore, but _ to the exterior

A

thick walls; thin walls

138
Q

When water enters, cells swell, and distort creating what?

A

the pore opening; permits entry of CO2 and exit of O2

139
Q

Loss of water does what?

A

relaxes the guard cells & pore closes

140
Q

Some epidermal cells elongate outward and become what?

A

trichomes (hairs)

141
Q

Trichomes have diverse shapes and serve many roles:

A
  • deter herbivory
  • minimize water loss
  • protect from over exposure to sunlight
  • can act as secretory glands
142
Q
  • part of the stem is interior to the epidermis
  • composed of photosynthetic parenchyma and sometimes collenchyma (for support)
A

Cortex

143
Q

responsible for the conduction of material throughout the plant

A

vascular tissues

144
Q

two types of vascular tissues occur in plants:

A

1) Xylem: conducts water & minerals
2) Phloem: distributes sugars & minerals

145
Q

Xylem and phloem occur together in primary plant stem in what?

A

vascular bundles

146
Q

Xylem is what at maturity?

A

dead & hollow

147
Q

Phloem is what at maturity?

A

alive

148
Q

What are the types of xylem cells (tracheids & vessel elements) collectively called?

A

tracheary elements

149
Q

Tracheids and vessel elements are both what?

A

types of conductive sclerenchyma with secondary cell walls deposited on interior of the primary wall

150
Q

Types of secondary cell wall thickenings

A
  • annular thickenings (rings)
  • helical thickening (spirals)
  • Scalariform thickening (ladder-like)
  • Reticulate thickening (network-like)
151
Q

Degree of strength of cells is correlated with what?

A

amount of secondary cell wall

152
Q

Water is free to pass through any regions that lack what?

A

secondary cell wall

153
Q

The most derived and strongest tracheary elements have what?

A

circular bordered pits

154
Q
  • cells have extensive secondary walls
  • small passage ways to the primary wall through secondary wall
  • bordered by extra wall material to increase strength
A

circular bordered pits

155
Q
  • long and narrow with pointed ends
  • an ancestral type of xylem
  • All plants with vascular tissue have tracheids
  • water moves between tracheids through lined-up pit (pit pairs)
  • water thus passes through 1 wall from cell to cell
A

Tracheids

156
Q
  • short and broad with non-tapered ends
  • only flowering plants have these
  • form a vertical, continuous tube
  • provide a way to move water very efficiently, with little resistance
A

Vessel elements

157
Q

refer to the open ends of the cells that results from loss of the primary cell walls

A

perforations

158
Q

stack of vessel elements forms what?

A

vessel

159
Q

plug that acts as an emergency valve

A

torus

160
Q

Water is normally free to flow from one tracheid to the next having to pass only through what?

A

primary cell wall/ middle lamella layers
- yields a continuous, unbroken flow of water

161
Q

What happens if there is a breach and air enters cell 2?

A

1) Air enters the pit from cell 2
2) This pushes the torus toward the pit opening of Cell 1
- this plugs the pit in Cell 1 and thus protects the cell from catastrophic failure because air would break the water column

162
Q

Tracheids are what? This is why trees need a lot of them in their wood

A

inefficient

163
Q

Soft woods are composed of what?

A

primarily of rows of tracheids and tend to lack other fiber support cells

164
Q

What dominates colder ecosystems?

A

conifers

165
Q

In cold climates, extreme cold causes freezing of the water in xylem that can cause what?

A

intrusion of air bubbles

166
Q

What protects the overall vascular system from total collapse?

A

pit safety valve

167
Q

Hardwoods are all what?

A

angiosperms: maple, oak, ash, etc…

168
Q

Why do hardwoods have less xylem than soft woods?

A

their vessels are very efficient at transporting water

169
Q

Hardwoods have more efficient vessels and less xylem, which has provided the opportunity for what to develop?

A

fiber cells

170
Q

have thick secondary walls and provide very strong support to hard woods

A

fiber cells

171
Q

what does ‘Hard’ in hardwood mean?

A

heavier

172
Q

Hardwood vessels are what?

A

open and very efficient at conducting water

173
Q

What outcompetes conifers in most habitats? Why?

A

Angiosperms (incl. trees); the reproductive and vascular systems of angiosperms is very successful

174
Q

Why can conifers outcompete angiosperms in colder temperatures?

A

the efficient wood of angiosperms is vulnerable to collapse in cold temperatures

175
Q

Where are conifers typically found?

A

boreal regions

176
Q

sugar/sap conducting cells of vascular plants

A

Phloem

177
Q

Phloem has two types of conducting cells:

A

1) sieve cells
2) Sieve tube members

178
Q

ancestral cell type

A

Sieve cells

179
Q

Sieve tube members

A

Derived cell type

180
Q

Sieve element refers to what?

A

sieve cells and/or sieve tube members

181
Q

What develops from parenchyma cells and remains alive at maturity?

A

phloem (Sieve cells & Sieve tube members)

182
Q

Plasmodesmata enlarge to become what?

A

sieve pores

183
Q

Sieve pores aggregate where?

A

sieve areas

184
Q

A sieve cell is similar in shape to what?

A

a tracheid
- elongated & tapered

185
Q

What phloem type is found in nonflowering vascular plants?

A

ancestral phloem (Sieve cells)

186
Q

similar to the vessel elements of the xylem

A

sieve tube members

187
Q

form on each end-wall and align vertically to form a sieve tube

A

sieve plates

188
Q

All what have sieve tubes?

A

angiosperms
- non-angiosperms do not

189
Q

What degenerates in sieve elements?

A

nuclei
- at maturity, they associate with neighboring (nucleated) cells that regulate their function

190
Q

Sieve cells associate with nucleated what?

A

albuminous cells

191
Q
  • small cells
  • occur in clusters along the sides of the sieve cells
  • regulate loading and unloading of sugars into the sieve cells
A

albuminous cells

192
Q

Sieve tube members associate with nucleated what?

A

companion cells

193
Q
  • regulate loading and unloading of sugars into the sieve tube cells
  • larger than albuminous cells, but smaller than its partner
  • prominent nucleus and dense cytoplasm filled with ribosomes
A

companion cells

194
Q

In the primary plant body, what occurs together in vascular bundles interior to the cortex?

A

xylem and phloem

195
Q

Xylem and phloem are what? Means running parallel to each other in the plant stem

A

‘Collateral’

196
Q

Most flowering plants have what arrangement of vascular bundles?

A

eudicots

197
Q

vascular bundles arranged in one ring between the cortex and surrounding the pith in the stem center
- primary growth

A

Eudicots

198
Q

Vascular bundles are distributed as a complex network throughout the inner part of the stem
- primary growth

A

monocots

199
Q

Other cell types are found in vascular bundles: associated with tracheary elements of xylem are:

A
  • xylem parenchyma
  • xylem fibers
200
Q

Other cell types are found in vascular bundles: associated with phloem are:

A
  • storage parenchyma
  • phloem fibers
201
Q

Cell types in angiosperms: Xylem vs Phloem

A

Xylem: tracheids, vessel elements
Phloem: Sieve cells, companion cells

202
Q

Contents: Xylem vs Phloem

A

Xylem: Water & dissolved minerals (Mg, Fe, Ca)

Phloem: sugars (sucrose), amino acids, small organic acids, plant hormones & defense compounds

203
Q

Direction of Conduction: Xylem vs Phloem

A

Xylem: From roots in soil to shoots. Most water is lost through open stoma in leaves

Phloem: Source to sink (need basis). From leaves to flowers, fruits, stems, roots, etc…
From storage in roots & stems to growing shoots

Spring 2023 (10 decks)

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